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SMITH’S NEW GRAMMAR 
-_-£- 


. ENGLISH GIAfMAS 


OS THE 


PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: * 


METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY A DOTTED 

\ . 

i */ 

» GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND 


JDcsfgiuto r or Srtnols u .I SUaUnutes 


ft w 

' BV ROSWELL C A SMITH, 

'tllTHOK OP 44 PRACTICAL AND M KNTA L A KITH M KTI C.” “ 'NTKI.I.M'Tl'Al 
A>U PRACTICAL GKAMMAR,” AM) y IN T KO DU CTO H Y AKlTtiMKITC ” 


^icconli lEuilioa. 


— 


PHILADELPHIA: 

WILLIAM MARSHALL & Co. 
NEW YOKE: KOE LOCKWOOD. 


1837 , 








Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by 
Perkins &, Marvin, ^ 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 


*1 


krtJr y'^ur^J 






PREFACE. 


The following work was composed, as is indicated oy tne 
title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the 
“ Productive System of Instruction.” It is in these countries 
that the subject of Education has been deemed a matter of 
paramount importance. The art of teaching, particularly, 
has there been most ably and minutely investigated. To 
give a brief account of the different systems whicli have 
prevailed there, may not be irrelevant on the present occa¬ 
sion, as they assist in forming an opinion of the comparative 
merits of the “ Productive System,” on which this work is 
principally based. 

» “ In reference to intellectual education, the persons who were in¬ 
strumental in producing the reformation in schools, in the last century, 
in these countries, may be divided into four classes—-the Humanists, 
Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools. 

“At the restoration of learning, in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries, the classics were brought out from the libraries of the 
cloisters in which they had been buried. As they presented die 
only examples of exalted sentiments and elevated style which the 
secular literature of the age afforded, they were regarded as the only 
means of acquiring enlarged views and a liberal education , the 
study of them received the proud title of Humanity; and the zea.ous 
and meritorious men who employed this means for the revival of 
learnintr, were subsequently termed Humanists. . 

u Thg cioid Humanists maintained that * the Greek and Latin 
authors are”the onlv source of sound learning, whether in philosophy 
or rhetoric, in poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the 
elements of religion , all has come to us from Greece and Koine. 

< The learning of the Greek and Latin languages is the only founda¬ 
tion of a thorough education;’ the knowledge of the grramn y ought 
to precede all other knowledge ; ‘ and philologists are the only thor¬ 
oughly learned men.’ _ , . , ,, 

“The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned work, 
until about the middle of the last century, when the school ot the 
Philanthropists arose. Disgusted with the extravagant manner in 
which the ancient languages were extolled, they were led to examine 
into the foundations of their pretensions. While they ym. < ed the 
palm to the ancients in all that relates to matters of taste and beauty, 
they maintained that this superiority arose from the fact, that die 
ancients derived their views directly from the inspection o, nature 
and the observation of man, instead of occupying themselves, as we 
do, with the mere pictures of them drawn by othersthey pointed 
to the obvious truth, that the world is older and vastly more experi¬ 
enced than it was two thousand years ago ; that m regard to all that 
relates to human knowledge, the present generation are really the 
ancients They believed that much time was lost oy the mil crimi¬ 
nate and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of education, 
which ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge; and 
that by this tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible ad¬ 
vantage to the pupil, they were often disgusted with every species 
of intellectual effort. They also pointed out the moral corruption 


4 


J’ltKKAOE. 


which arises from many of the examples nnd sentiments of the 
ancients, and especially disapproved that discipline of compulsion 
and violence, by which chi.dren have been forced to this ungrateful 
employment. They urged the importance of loading by the attrac¬ 
tion of knowledge itself, rathei 'than by force.. Imey paid much 
attention to the developement of the bodily r constitution and powers, 
anti pr< ssed to aim at forming men, and not mere scholars. . v 

“ liu with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding 
one extreme, thev ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable 
influence of these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties 
and habits of the mind. < ; 

“ Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably 
exerted much influence on the improvement of education. Th§ 
extravagant views of the Humanists were considerably modified, 
and although many still retain the exclusive maxims of their pre 
decessors, many admit, as stated in the German ‘Conversation* 
Lexicon,' that 'nl! should he embraced in education which can pro¬ 
mote the for million of the. man, tintl prepare him for the eternal destiny 
of his spirit: The Philanthropists also prepared the way for theii 
successors of the School of Pestnlpzzi. This remarkable man adopted 
many of the opinions of his predecessors of the Philanthropic school, 
especially those which related to the developement of the bodily 
powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. 
He perceived, however, that, in assuming practical utility as the 
e/rlnsire list of the value of particular objects of instruction, they 
had too much neglected the derelopcment of the mind itself. In seek- 
in<r to avoid this ermr, however, lie did not entirely escape the other 
extreme. He assumed, as a fundamental principle, tliat a certain 
developement of mind was necessary for every rank and every occu¬ 
pation. The means of this developement lie supposed himself to 
have found, so far as the intellectual faculties were concerned, in 
the elements' of form and number, which are combined in the science 
of Mathematics , in hi no no or., and in Natural History. The Math¬ 
ematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in practice, which 
was unfavorable to the regular and harmonious cultivation of other 
powers. The senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to rie- 
velope, in accordance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by 
the careful examination of the various objects of nature and art, which 
surround the pupil, by means of music, and by gymnastic exercises, 
alternated or combined with labor. Pestalozzi himself was remarka¬ 
bly the creature of powerful impulses, which were usually of thq 
most mild and benevolent kind, and preserved a child-like character 
in this respect., even to old age. It was probably this temperament 
which led him to estimate at a low rate the importance of positive 
religions truth in the education of children, and to maintain that the 
mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated towards earthly parent* 
ami benefactors, would of course he transferred to our heavenly 
Father, whenever his character should he exhibited to the mind 
of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established 
by the unhappy experience of his own institution ; and his own ex¬ 
ample afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, 
not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and 
ruin, and thus defeat their own ends.* This principle, combined 

* As an example of this, it may Ikj mentioned that, on one of those occasions (fr©* 
rptently oceurriua) on which lie was reduced to extremity for want of the means of sup- 
idring his large family, he borrowed from a friend for this purpose. In going 
home, he met a jteiisnui wringing his hands in despair for the loss of l.is cow. Pe*r 
.ftluzzi put the .Cue hug of money into his hands, and ran off to escape bis thanks. 



pm; face. 


5 


with the want of tact in reference to the affairs of common life, 
materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a practical instructor 
of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him to 
execute his own plans * and, according to his own system, too much 
time was employed in the profound developement of principles to 
admit of much attention to their practical application. But, as one 
of his admirers observed, ho seemed destined to educate ideas and 
not children. He combated, with unshrinking boldness, a 1 untir¬ 
ing persevtuance, through a long life, both by his exam) and by 
his numerous publications, the prejudices and abuses of the age, in 
reference to education, lie attacked, with great vigor and no small 
degree of success, that favorite maxim of bigotry and tyranny, that 
ohedienco and devotion are the legitimate offspring of ignorance. 
He denounced that degrading system, which considers it enough to 
enable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring— 
and in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of 
the forest: and which deems every thing lost whose value cannot be 
estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences of parents and 
of rulers, with an energy approaching that of the ancient prophets, 
the solemn duties whi'ch Divine Providence had imposed upon them, 
in committing to their charge the present and future destinies of 
their fellow beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which 
pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, by means of his popu 
lar and theoretical works, reached the- cottages of the poor and 
palaces of the great. His institution at. Yvsrdun was crowded with 
men of every nation, not inere!*!iose who were led by the same 
benevolence which inspired him, but by the agents of kings, and 
noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make themselves 
acquainted with his principles, in oroer to become fellow-laborers in 
his plans of benevolence. 

u It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in 
Germany or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another 
school, which has been styled the Productive School, and which now 
predominates in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhaps with 
equal propriety, be termed the Eclectic School ; for it aims at embody¬ 
ing all the valuable principles of previous systems, without adhering 
slavishly to the dictates of any master, or the views of any party. 
It rejects alike the idolatrous homage to the classics, which was paid 
by the Humanists-—the unreasonable-prejudices of the Philanthro¬ 
pists against classical and merely literary pursuits—and the undue 
predilection for the mere expansion of mind, to the neglect ot posi¬ 
tive knowledge uml practical application, which characterized too 
many of the Posiaiozzian school. 

il The leading principle of this system, is that which its name 
indicates—that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient 
of the ideas of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and 
originating, and producing most of the ideas which are necessary for 
its education, when presented with the objects or the facts from which 
they may be derived. While, on the one hand, they are careful not 
to reduce the pupil to a mere machine, to be moved by the will 
of his instructor in an assigned direction, or a mass oi passive nut¬ 
ter, to be formed by him according to his own favorite model, tl.oy 
are equally careful to avoid the- extreme, into which some oi the 
preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander indefinitely 
in a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him 
the merit" of discovery*. They consider a course of education as 
divided into two parts —the period of developement and the period of 
i * 



<3 


PREFACES. 


acquisition. In the first period, which they consider as particvlofly 
devoted to developing the faculties and forming the habits of the mind, 
in order to prejiare it as an instrument for future operations, they em¬ 
ploy the inductive process chiefly. Time is net here of so much 
importance as the habit of investigation and effort, which can only 
I e acquired by meeting and overcoming difficulties. This period, 
which must he made longer or shorter according to the character 
of the pupil, or the necessity that his circumstances in life may im¬ 
pose, is succeeded by the period of acquisition , in which the mind is 
more especially called upon to exercise the powers which have been 
preciously developed and cultivated. , in the acquisition, of such positive 
knowledge as way prejiare the individual for life and action. The 
iudc/'tive process is still employed as much as possible, not only be¬ 
cause :t has become, for many cases, the shortest and most agreeable, 
but because it is important to maintain the habits it has produced, 
and invigorate the faculties it has served to develope. 

“ But stili it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil 
is never suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a sci¬ 
ence for himself, and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience 
Of sages and centuries. On the contrary, they deem his mind 
capable of being elevated even more rapidly by following the pro¬ 
cesses of patient investigation, by which the most exalted minds 
have arrived at results that astonish and delight him, and of thps 
learning to imitate strides, which seem to him like those of a giant, 
and to cultivate those habits of un|pring attention, which the greatest 
philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic 
glance, that almost unerring wwc of discrimination, which seemT 
to others so nearly miraculous 

“Such is thw Productive System, by which the powers of th$ 
pupil are called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt 
a task unaided, and then assisting him in correcting his own errors, 
Or returning from his own wanderings, before he is discouraged by 
the waste of time and the fruitlessness of his efforts. They distin¬ 
guish carefully between knowledge and the means of obtaining it. 
To cultivate the senses, and present the objects which they are capa¬ 
ble of examining, is to open to the child the sources of knowledge — 
to place before him a book which is ever open, and in which he may 
every moment read. This, they maintain, is the first and most 
obvious part of education, according to the dictates of common sense* 
It is one .a which nothing but truth is presented to him, and which, 
by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their improve¬ 
ment, and cultivates a spirit of investigation.” 

The preceding extracts are taken from Art. 1. Vol. I. 
No. VI. of the American Journal of Education, New iSeries. 
The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his 
obligations to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A 
constant perusal of its pages has afforded him many valuable 
ideas on the subject of education, and he cheerfully ac¬ 
knowledges material assistance derived from it in the prepa¬ 
ration of the “Productive System of English Grammar/’ 
which is now respectfully submitted to the candid examina¬ 
tion of the public. 

THE AUTHOR. 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


I. OF THE NOON 

Q. What is your name 7 

Q. What is the name of the town in which you five 7 
Q. What does the word noun mean 7 

Jins. The word noun means name. 

Q,. What, then, may your name be called 7 

1. A NOUN. 

Q. What may all names be called 7 

2. Nouns. 

Q. Boston is the name of a place : is Boston a noun 7 and if so, why 7 

3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. 

Q. Hudson is the name of a river: is Hudson a noun, and why 7 
Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is book a noun, and why 7 
Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is 7 

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing 

Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons 7 two, the names 
jf thing's 7 two, the names of different places 7 

Q. will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sentences, 
as 1 read them to you 7 

** Thomas and Joseph are in the house.” 

“ The horse and cow are in the lot.” 

“ The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain.” 

“ Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields.” 


II. NUMBER. 

Q. "What is the meaning of the word number ; as, 11 The number of but 
•ons on vour coat” 7 

5. Number means a sum that, may he counted. 

Q. What does the word singidar mean 7 

6. It means one. 

Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair , what number is it t 

7. Singular number. 

Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 

8. The singular number denotes but one thing 




8 


ENGLISH GuAxMMAIL 


Q. Of what number is book, and why? 

9. Book is of the singular number, because it means 
but one. 

Cl Of what number is choir, and why ? 

Q YVI Kit does the word plural mean ? 

10. It means more than one. 

Q Of what number is lamps, and why ? 

11. Lamps is of the plural number, because it means 

more than one. 

Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ? 

O I»y adding s to do re, we have doves, and es to box, we have boxes 
Mow, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 

12. By adding 5 or es to the singular. 

Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass ? window ? theatre ? antece 
dent ? church ? labyrinth ? 

Q. IIow many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they 7 

13. Two, the singular and plural. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number ? one of the plural | 
number ? 


III. GENDER 

/ 

Q. What does the word gender mean ? 

14. Gender signifies sex. 

Q. What does the word masculine mean ? 

15. It means male. 

Cl John is the name of a nrale : of what gender or sex, then, is John 7 

lo. Of the masculine or male gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender ? 

17. The names of males. 

Q. What gentler, then, is man, and why ? 

18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is 
the name of a male. 

Q. Of what gentler is uncle, and why? father? why r ? - 
O. W hat does feminine mean ? — 

19. It means female. 

Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan? 

20. Of the feminine gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender? 

21. The names of females. 

Q. What gender is woman, and why ? 

22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is 

the name of a female. 

Q. Of what gender is aunt, and why ? daughter? why ? 

Q. What does the word neuter mean ? 

23. It means neither. 

Q- Chair is the name neither of a male nor a female : what gender, then, 
may >t properly he called ? 

24. Neuter gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender? 


NOUNS. 


9 


25. The names of objects that are neither males nor 
females. 

Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why 7 

26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither 
of a male nor female. 

Q. Of what gender is bench ? why 7 chair ? why 7 

Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it is 
a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns as 
parent, bird, &c. 7 

27. Common gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender ? 

28. The names of such animals as may be either 
males or females. 

Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why 7 

29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is 
the name either of a male or female. 

Q. Of what gender is robin, and why 7 

Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they 7 

30. Four—the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, 
and the common. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender 7 one of the feminine 7 
one of the neuter 7 one of the common 7 

Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following 
sentences, as I read them to you 7 

“ James and William.” “ Slate and pencil.” 

“ John and the girls.” “ Women and birds.” 


IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word common; as, “A common com 
plaint” 7 

~31. Common means general, 

Q. Although there are a vast mnnv male children in the world, each one 
may be callcd’by the general name of 'boy ; what kind of a noun, then, would 
you call boy? 

32. A common noun. 

Q. When, then, is a noun called common 7 

33. When it is a general name. 

Q. What does the word proper mean ? 

34. It means fit or particular. 

Q. John, vou know, is the particular name of a boy 2 what kind of a noun, 
then, may it be called 7 

35. A proper noun. 

Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper? 

36. When it is a particular name. 

Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and w hy 7 # . 

37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a partieu 
lar name. 

Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why ? 


10 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Q. What kind of a noun is rirer, and why 7 

38. River is a common noun, because it is a gene¬ 
ral name. „ 

Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to he, and what are they ? 

Q. What kind of a noun is girls? Mary? town? New York? London1 
boat ? chain ? 

Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following'sen 
tences ; which arc proper, and which common ; also their gender and number 1 

“Thomas and John.” “ King and queen.” 

“ Susan and Mary.” “ House and barn.” 

V. PERSON. 

Q. When a person, in speaking, says, “ I, John, will do it,” what person 
do grammarians cal! John? 

39. The first person. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 

40. When it is the name of the person speaking. 

Q. When I say, "James, mind your studies,” what person do grammarians 

CaM James ? 

41. The second person, being the person spoken to. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 

42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, 
or addressed. 

Q. " William, James has come.” What person is William , and why ? 

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken 
to. 

Q. When I say, "William, James has come,” I am speaking to William 
about James : of what person, then, is James, and why 1 

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken 
of; that is, I was talking about James. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 

45. When it is spoken of. 

Q. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden.” What person is Thomas ? why 7 
Is Rufus? win ? 

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

46. Three persons — the first, second, and third. 

Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which 
common ; also their gender, number, and person ? 

“ I, James, of Boston.” “ Boy rmd girl.” 

“ Henry, study your book.” “ William and his sister.’ 


VI. CASE. 

Q We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He it 
in a good ease” *, and, when he is lean, that " He is in a bad case” t what, 
therefore, does the word case mean ? 

47 Case means condition , state, &,c. 


CASES. 


n 


Q‘ When I say, “ Charles strike^ William” "William strikes Charies,” 
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles m the former example 
•* quite different from his state or condition h, i),e latter: in the one. Charles 
Strikes; in the other, he is struck; what, then, is meant by the different cases 
of nouns ? 

48. The different condition or position they have in 
relation to other words in the same sentence. 

U. What does the word nominative mean ? 

40. Nominative means naming. 

Q. When I say, “John strikes,” he evidently docs something: what. then, 
may John be called ? 

50. An actor or doer. 

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leadin'* 
aoun, in what case is John, when 1 say, '‘John strikes” ? 

51. In the nominative case. 

Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns ? 

52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. 

Q. When l say, “ The dog runs,” in what case is dog, and why ? 

53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the 
agent, actor, or doer. 

Q. “ 'Flic cat catches mice.” In what case is cat, and why ? 

Q. When 1 say, “Thomas is pursuing the thief,” what is the object here 
which Thomas is pursuing ? 

54. Thief. 

Q What does the word objective mean ? 

55. It means belonging to the object . 

Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, “Thomas 
pursues the thief” ? 

56. In the objective case. 

Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 

57. The objective case denotes the object. 

Q. When I say, * William whips John,” in what case is John, and why ? 

58. In the objective case, because John is the ob¬ 
ject. 

Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 

59. Possession, ownership, property, &c. 

Q. When I say, “ It is John’s slate,” I mean to say that John owns the 
ate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John’s ? 

60. In the possessive case. 

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ? 

61. The possessive case denotes possession, prop* 

erty, &c. 

Q. When I say, “ Peter’s knife,” who owns or possesses the knife ? 

Q. In what case, then, is Peter’s, and why ? 

62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses 
the knife. 

Q. In the example “John’s slate,” you perceive that John’s ends in s, with 
a comma before i what is the comma, and what is the s, called in grammar ? 

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the $, 
an apostrophic s. 

Q. You also perceive that Jena’s is singular . how, then, do nouns in the 
singular number usually form their possessive case ? 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


12 


64. By taking after thean an apostrophe with the 
letter 5 following it. 

Q. “ On eagles’ wings." Here eagles' is plural, and in the possessive 
case: how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 

65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the 
addition of s. 


Q. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, “ men’s concerns," how u 
the possessive case formed ? 

66. As the same case in the singular number is 
formed. 

Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have, 
and what are they 7 

67. Three—-the nominative, possessive and objec¬ 
tive. 

Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a tcord: what, then, 
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun 7 


68. To tell its different cases or endings. 

Q. Will you decline John? 


69. Nominative case , 
Possessivi case , 
Objective case , 

Q. Wilf you decline hay, in both numbers 7 

Singular. 

70. Nom . Boy. 

Poss. Boy’s. 

Obj. Boy. 


John. 

John’s. 

John. 

Plural . 
Nom. Boys. 
Poss. Boys’. 
Obj. Boys. 




Q. When I say “ William’s coat," you perceive that the noun coat follow* 
William's: by what is William's said to be governed, and why 7 

71. By coat , because it follows William's. 

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive 
case 7 


RULE I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following 


noun . 

Q. u William’s hat." Is William’s a proper or common noun 7 Why 7 
(36.)* 

Q. What is its person 7 why? (45.)* Its number? why 7 (8.)* Its gen¬ 
der 7 why 7 (17.)* Its case7 why 7 (61.)* What noun follows William’s? 
What word, then, governs William's / What is the rule 7 

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sen¬ 
tences, in the same manner as we have those of William’s, above, what is ihe 
exercise called 7 

72. Parsing. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING. 4 

44 John's knife." 

7? John's is a noun, because it is a name— proper, be¬ 
cause it is a particular name— masculine gender ; it is the 
name of a mal$— third person ; it is spoken of — singular 

* Refer hack to Otis number. 






ARTICLES. 


13 


number; it means but one —-possessive case; it implies 
possession—and it is governed by the noun knife , accord 
ing to 

Rule I. The possessive, case is governed by the following 
norm. 

_ - Knife is a noun; it is a name— common; it is a general 
name —neuter gender; it is neither male nor female— 
third person ; it is spoken of —singular number ; it means 
but one. 

tCT Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the. mode of parsing the 
noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in 
the hook. He may then take. the. following exercises , which are to he 
parked in a similar manner. 

EXERCISES IN PAUSING CONTINUED. 

41 Peter's cap.” 44 Stephen’s coat.” 44 Brother's knife * 

44 John’s slate.” “ Father’s house.” “ Boys* hats.” 

^ 0 

' VII. OF ARTICLES. 

Q. When I say, “ Give me a hook/’ I evidently mean no particular book , 
but when 1 say, “ Give me the book/ 7 what do I mean ? 

74. Some particular book. 

Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning 7 

75. A and the. 

Q. What are these little words called 7 

76. Articles. 

Q. What, then, are articles 7 

77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word definite? 

78. Definite means particular. 

Q. “Give me the book/’ Here a particular book is referred to; wlmt 
kind of an article, then, shall we call the? 

79. Definite article. 

Q. What, then, is a definite article 7 

80. It points out what particular thing or things are 
meant. 

Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not: w hat 
then, will indefinite mean 7 

81 . Not definite. 

q. When I say. “Give me a knife." no particular knife is meant: what 
kind of an article, then, may a be called ? 

82. Indefinite article. 

Q. Why is it so called ? 

83. Because it is not used before the name of any 
particular person or thing 


GRAMMAR 


* > an apple.” “ an inkstand.” Arc. m preference to “a apple ' 

itc. « » 1 \ Is tins ? 

Bemuse it is easier to speak, and also more 
ssant to the ear. 

V\ r !i;u "kind of letters do ajyjle and ivkstatu / l>egiii with ? 

.. Vowels. 

'■I In what cases do we use an instead of‘ a f 

-•<>. Before words beginning with the vowels a , e, i, 

O , tt. 

(J. In speaking, we say, “ «r man,” not u on man”: when, then, do we 
•tse o / 

87. Before words beginning with consonants. 

U. vv Licit letters are consonants ? 

88 . All the letters of the alphabet, except the vow¬ 
els, which are a, e, {, o, u; and also w and y, except 
at the beginning of words, when thev are consonants 

d n ow. then, do a and an differ ? 

80. Only in their use; a being used before conso- 
nimts, and an before vowels: both are called by the 
same name. 

Q. How many articles do there appear to he. and what are they? 

00. Two— a or an , and the. 

It i«. rnstomary to say, “ a hoy,” not ‘‘a boys” ; also, “ an inkstand,” 
,iut •• in •kA’vO e/v” of’ whai number, then, mist the noun he. before which 
•h> sc !et'n •** ar*ide is placed ! 

:. 'The singular number. 

What, then is the rule tor ihc indelirite article? 

II. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 

(I We can say. “the hoy,” and “the hoys”; using a noun either of the 
singular or plural number after the: \vhat, then, is the rule for the definite 
article? t 

KULE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the 
singular or plural number. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ The boy." 

92. Tlic is an article, a word placed before nouns to 
limit their meaning —definite ; it means a particular boy— 
and belongs to boy , according to 

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

Boy is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general 
name— masculine gender ; it is the name of a male —third 
person ; it is spoken of—and singular number ; it means 
ant one* 


ADJECTIVES. 


15 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

4 hand.” “An eagle.” “ The man.” “ The boys’ hats.” 

A man.” “An insect.” “ The men.” “ A man's cap.” 

‘Amite.” “An acorn.” “ The boys.” “The girls'room.” 

•‘A month.” “An ounce.” “The mice.” “ The lady’s box.” 


•VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Q. When I say, “ John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy,” I use 
certain words to describe boy: which are they ? 

93. Industrious , obedient , and good. 

Q. When I say , 11 a good man,” to what word is the describing word good 
joined or added ? 

94. To the noun man. 

Q Wiiat does the word adjective mean ? 

95. Joined or added to. 

Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good , obedient, in¬ 
dustrious, & c. ? 

96. Adjectives. 

Q. What, then, are adjectives ? 

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe 
or qualify them. 

Q. u A wise man.” Which word is the adjective here, and why t 

Q. “ Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one.” How are Rufus 
and James spoken of here ? 

98. Inj^i&pjirison witjj.paph other. 

Q. The jfcfjectivesMn the last exaiqpl^fere good and better: can you tell 
me which of these jvo/ds denotes a higherjfegree of excellence than the other a 

99. The wq£d better. .... 

Q. What deg&iprfof comparison?* then;, shall we call better 7 

lO^'WCtJtopafPative degrcj gfti - 

Q. \Wtnt 7 *{K 5 j>i 7 *dcJps the eomparay^riegree imply? 

101. * Comparison between two. 

Q. “ William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in school.” 
What is meant here by tallest f 

102 . Exceeding all in height. 

Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 

103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree. 

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest 7 

104. Superlative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the high¬ 
est or lowest degree. 

Q. When I say, “ Tames is a good boy,” I make no comparison between 
nini and anv other; but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a 
good boy. "What kind of a sentence, 'hen, would you call this ? 

106. A positive sentence. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good? 

107. TJje positive degree. 


16 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Q. What, then, does the positive degree do ? 

108. It merely describes, without any comparison* 

Q. Will a ow compare great ? 

109. “Positive, great; Comparative, greater; Su¬ 
perlative, greatest.” 

Q. Wili you compare wise in the same manner? 

Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable: how, then, are the com- 
liarative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed ? 

HO. By adding r or er, st or est, to the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare small / high? niiah? 

Q. Will you compare beautiful ? 

111. “ Pos. beautiful; Comp . more beautiful; Sup 
most beautiful.” 

Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful ? 

11 2. Three. 

Q. How, then, are words of three, or more syllables than one, usually 
Compared ? ^ 

113. By placing more and most before the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare iiulustnous ? ingenious? dutiful? 

Q. Will you compare Wise, by using the words less and least ? 

114. “ Pos . wise ; Comp, less wise ; Sup. least wise.” 

Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent ? distinguished? dilatory? 

Q. “ Good men, better men, best men.” Which adjective here is the posi¬ 
tive, and why ? (103.) Which the comparative? why ? (101.) Which die 
superlative? why ? (105.) 

Q. Good, you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beautiful, 
Slc. ; and since there are many words of this description, I will give you a list 
of ihe principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you re¬ 
peat the comparative and superlative degrees, as I name the positive ? 


115 . 


Povttiee. Ct riupai n#ev e. 

Good, 4ptfrer, 

Little, fetwfs, 

Much, or many, 

Bad, ill, or evil, Wtfastf, 
Near, 

Old, 

Late, 





ISwuafiT ny^wt. 
Qm n ntqrrm m hi ret. 
'mtinif-T— r-V* 


Cl. From the foregoing* how many degrees of comparison do there appear 

i« be, and what are they ? 

116. Three—the positive, comparative, and super¬ 
lative. 


Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouiis : to what* then* do they natu 
rally belong ? 


IUJZxE IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ A wiser child.” 

117. A is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning— indefinite; it means no particular child— 
and belongs to child, agreeably to 

Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
i if the singular number. _ 

Tufrh 


PRONOUNS. 


17 


\ 

Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to 
describe it— “ Pos . wise; Co-up. wiser; Sup. wisest”— made 
in the comparative degree—and belongs to child, by 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de.- 
<cribr. 

Child is a noun; it is a name— common ; it is a general 
name— common cender ; it may be either male or fern ale-- 
rmiih person; it is spoken of-—and singular numio k 
means but one. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

1. # 2. ^ 3. 

A dutiful son.” “ An ugly child.” “ The base man.” 

“An idle boy.” “An irksome task.” “The whiter cloth.” \ 
1 A foolish son.” “ A mild reply.” “ The milder weather.’’ 
4. 5. 


“The greatest man.” 
1 The wisest prince.” 
“The noblest man.” 
6 . 


“The more (1) benevolent citizen.” 
“Themost (1) suitable method.” 
“The least (1) distrustful friend.” 


“ A large, convenient, and 
(lj airy habitation.” 

“The intelligent, industri¬ 
ous, obedient, and (1) 
docile scholar.” 


“ The last choice.” 

“ The best man.” 

“ The nearest relations.” 
“Johnson’s (2) large dictionary.” 
“ Murray’s small grammar.” 


* 


IX. OF PRONOUNS. 

Q. When I say, “John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will ex¬ 
cel/ how can 1 speak so as to avoid repeating John so often ? 

1 18. By using the word he in its place ; thus, “ John 
goes to school, he learns last, and he will excel.” 

Q. What little word, then, may stand for John ? 

119. He. 

Q. What does the word pronoun mean ? 

120 . Standing for, or instead of a noun. 

Q. What, then, shall we call the word he, above ? 

121. A PRONOUN. 

Q. What, then, is a pronoun ? 

122. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid 
a repetition of the same word. 

Q. When James says, “ I will study,” you perceive that I stands for the 
person speaking: what person, then, is it ? (39.) 

Q. When I say, “ James, you must study,” the word you evidently is ap¬ 
plied to James, who is spoken to : what person, then, ought you to be ? 

123. The second person. 

1. To be omitted in parsing. 2. Johnson’s is governed by dictionary, b v 

itule 1. 



18 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. When 1 sSy, " He (meaning William) should learn,’' what person oughl 
he to be, and why ? 

124. The third person; because it stands in the 
place of a noun which is spoken of. 

Q. If / invariably stands for the first person, you for the second, and he 
for the third, how can we tell the different persons of pronouns 7 

125. By the pronouns themselves. 

Q. Wind have these pronouns been called from this circumstance 7 

120. Personal pronouns. 

ItJ* I will now' give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which yon must 
first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as may be 
asked you. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

% v 

FIRST PERSON 


127. Sing. 

Pit * 

Nom. 

1. 

We. 

Poss. 

My ur mine. 

Ours or our. 

Obj. 

Me. 

Us. 


SECOND PERSON. 



Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

Thou or yon. 

Ye or you. 

Poss. 

Thine or thy, yours or your. 

Yours or your. 

Obj. 

Thee or vou. 

✓ J 

You. 


THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. 


Sing 

Plur. 

Nom. 

He 

They. 

Poss 

His 

Theirs or their. 

Obj. 

Him. 

Them. 


THIRD PERSON FEMININE, 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

She. 

They. 

Poss. 

Hers or her. 

Theirs or their. 

Obj . 

Her 

Them. 


THIRD PERSON NEUTER. 


Sing 

Plur. 

Nom. 

It 

They. 

Poss. 

Its 

Theirs or their. 

Obj. 

It. 

Them. 

Q. Will you decline / in both numbers ? them 

or you ? he ? she ? it 


Q. In vvlmt person, number, and case is // we? my? mine? our or ours? 
we ? ns ? tlwn ? T/e 1 his l diet/1 (hem ? 

Q. In what gentler, person, number, and case is he? she? it ? his ? hers? 
her ? him ? x . v . / , i,£ 

Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they 7 

128. Two—the singular and plural. 

Q. How many cases, and what are they ? 

129. Three—the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 


PRONOUNS 


n 


Q. Mow tnnny persons 7 

130. Three—tiie first, second, and third. 

Q. How many genders 7 

*131. Three—the masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person 7 
Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third 7 
Q. The pronouns of the nominative cose, singular, tire called leading pro 
louns : how many of these are there '/ 

133. Five—/, thou or you, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the; Singular and 
plural numbers, also tire nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the 
ending pronouns 7 

134. Because they are all considered as variations 
of the nominative singular. 

Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender 7 

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre¬ 
sent a different gender 7 * . 

136. The first and second persons being always 
present, their genders are supposed to be known. 

' Q. if, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, 
aucl person ought they to have ? 

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- 
notms / 

B.TJ2L.3 V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand , in gender, number , and person 
QUESTIONS ON PARSING. 

Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what are 
they 1 

138. Four—the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, 
and the Pronoun. 

q. The word part, yo u know, means division; and speech, the power of 
tisintr words, or language: what, therefore, shall we call these grand divisions 
of words 7 

131). Parts of Speech. 

Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech boy is, for instance, what 
do von understand me to mean ! . 

140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun 
or not. /o _ 

Q. What part of speech, then, is William, and why 7 (36.) 

1. “He went £o school.” 

9. “ »She went, to her task.” 

3. “William went to his play.” i 

4. “John returned from his school.” 

5. “ I request you to mind your studies.” 

6. “ The book was mine, but now it is yours.” 

q Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples 7 

O. How many arc there in all 7 , „ 

q What is tiie gender, number, and person of those in the first? Second7 

third 7 fourth 7 fifth ? sixth 7 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


20 

Q. What is the gender of his, in the fourth sentence? why? (137.) It* 
number i why? (137.) Its person? why? ( 137 .) Its case? wh\ i 0*L) 

Q. Will sou name the nouns in the lirst sentence ? in the second l third i 
fourtli ! tilth ! sixth ! 


X. OF THE VERB. 

Q. When I say, “ James strikes William,” which word tells what James 

does ? 

141. Strikes. 

Q. The word verb means word; and as the words in all sentences, which 
tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be called ? 

142. Verbs. 

Q. If, in the phrase “William strikes James/' we leave out the word 
strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then, 
can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a dif¬ 
ferent name ? 

143. The words which we call verbs are the most 
important. 

Q. “ William studies his lesson.” Which word is the verb here, ttsxa 
why ! 

144. Studies , because it tells what William does. 

Q. When 1 say, “John dances,” which word is the verb, and why ? 

Q. When I say, “James strikes John,” which word shows that an action 

is performed ? 

145. Strikes. 

Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes ? 

14G. An active verb. 

Q. What kind of a verb is walks, in this sentence, “ John walks,” and 
why ? 

147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses 
action. 

Q. “ He beat William.” Which word here is the verb ? Is William an 
agent or an object ? 

148. An object. 

Q. When I say, “ The child walks,” walks, it is true, is an active verb, 
out it has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above; nei¬ 
ther can we supply one; for we cannot say, “ The child walks” any thing i 
w,.at, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the nature of ac¬ 
tive verbs? 

149. That some active verbs will take nouns after 
them for objects, and others will not. 

Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means pass¬ 
ing over; and when I say, “William whips Charles,” the verb whips shows 
that the action which William performs, passes over to Charles as the object. 
What kind of a verb, then, shall we call whips ? 

150. An active-transitive verb. 

Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ? 

151. It is one that either has, or may have, an ob¬ 
ject after it. * 

Q. Walks, we found, would not take an object after it; and, as intranst - 
five BteaJis not passing; over, what shall wc call such verbs as walks ? 



VERBS. 


21 


<52. Active-intransitive verbs. 

What, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 

153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses 
at don, but will not take an object after it. 

Q. When I say, “ He eats it,” “ He beats him,” we immediately deter- 
mi e that beats and eats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects alter them i 
how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished 1 

154. When we can place him or it after any active 
verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is 
intransitive. 

Q. “James remains at home—sleeps at home—is at home.** Which 
words are the verbs here ? 

155. Remains , sleeps , and is. 

Q. These v erbs do not imply action, like strikes, beats, &c.: what do they 
imply ? 

156. Existence , rest , or being , in a certain state. 

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter 
(signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor pas¬ 
sive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a passive 
verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of 
the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being 
or existence in a certain state. 

Q. Will you inform me now, in general u-nns, what is a correct definition 
of a verb ? 

158. A verb is a word which signifies action or 

BEING. 

Q. When I sav, “ I strike,” in what number and person is strike, and why ? 

f 159. Strike is of the first person singular, because 
its agent, /, is of this person and number. 

Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, do not 
have person and number: why, then, are they said to have these properties at 
all ? ' 

160. On account of the connection which they have 
with their agents or nominatives. 

Q. We say, “ I write,” and “ He writes”; hence yon perceive that the 
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, will 
be the rule for the nominative case '( 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number 

and person . 

Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, iriwha.'l 
respect must the verb agree with its nominative case 1 

RULE yix. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Q. When 1 sav, “James beats him,” the pronoun him is the object of 
the action denoted by heats, hiid is, therefore, in the objective case: what 
then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? 

RULE VIII. 

Active transitive verbs govern the objective case 


22 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Q. I will no\ b v ou the different endings of the verb love, in its differer 

numbers and persons. Will you repeat them » 

Singular. Plural. 

1GI. First person, I love. First person, We love. 

Second person, You love. Second person, You love. 

Third person, He loves. Third person, They love. 

Q. Will you repeat the variations of am 7 

Singida7\ Plural. 

1G2. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are. 

2 Pcrs. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 

3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They ,are. 

Q. Will you repeat, in the same maimer, the variations of hate 7 desire 7 read 7 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ 1 study my lesson .” 

163. / is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— per¬ 
sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first)—riRsf 
person ; it denotes the speaker —singular number ; it 
means but one —“ Nom. I ”—made in the nominative case 
to study , according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in num¬ 
ber and person. 

Study is a verb ; it expresses action —transitive ; it ad¬ 
mits an object after it—“1 Pers. I study” — made in the 
first person—singular number, because its nominative 1 
is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

My is a pronoun, a word used for a noun —personal ; it 
always represents the same person —first person ; it repre¬ 
sents the person speaking — “Nom. I ; Poss. my, or mine” _ 

made in the possessive case— and governed by the noun 
lesson, according to 

J o 

Rule 1. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name _ neu¬ 

ter gender ; it is neither male nor female —third person ; 
it is spoken of —singular number ; it means but one—and 
in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, 
and governed by it, according to 

' Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

Transitive Verbs. 

I lament my fate.” “ He found a dollar.” 

“ You regard your friends.” “ She attends the school.” 

“ YV e desire your improvement.” «It retards the work.” 

‘‘We love our children.” “ They shun vice ” 

“ You make a knife.” “ Ye derive comfort ” 





VfcRIJS. 


k i* 


T love him.” 

“ I lament her.” 

“ You assist them.” 

“He struck her.” 

“ John reads his book.” 

His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— pkr- 
son a i. ; it uniformly stands for the same person— masculine 

GENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, because the 

f noun John is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand , in gender , number , and person. 

“Nom. he ; Poss. his”—made in the possessive case— 
and governed by the noun book, according to 

Rule 1. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

The remaining words, book , reads , and John , are parsed as before. 


“ She forsook you.” 
“ They annoy me.” 
“We took it.” 

“ She relieved us.” 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


“Mary studies her lesson.” 
“The girls love their books.” 
“Good children mind their 
parents.” 

“Sin deceives its votaries.” 


3. 

“ Virtue rewards its followers.” 

“ A disobedient son grieves his 
"parents.” 

“The intemperate man loves his 
dram.” 


In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns foi 
which they stand are expressed. 

Intransitive Verbs. 

4* 

“I walk.” “ You smile.” “John swims.” 

“James runs.” “They wink.” “Birds tly.” 

“William hops.” “We dance.” “Lions roar.” 

Neuter Verbs. 

“William is (1.) discreet.” (2.) “John’s wife is fortunate.” 

“James is happy.” “John’s brother is unhappy.” 

“He was studious.” “The eagle’s flight was sudden.” 

“He became intemperate.” “The scholar’s duty is plain.” 

“ Thou art wise.” “ The judge’s pay is sufficient.” 


XI. INDICATIVE MOOD—TENSE. 

Q. When James says, u I will learn/’ he evidently means, by his manner 
of speaking, to express'his intention to learn ; but when he says, “ I can learn,” 
what does he mean ? _ 

(I.) Is is a verb ; it implies being— neuter ; it is neither active nor pas¬ 
sive. but expresses being-, merely—“ 1 pers. I am 5 2 pers. You are; livers. He, 
or William is ”—made In the third person, singular, because William, its 
nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree icith its nominative case in number and person. 

( 2 .) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 






24 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


165. That he has the ability to learn. 

Q. YVnat does the word mood mean ? 

166. Mood means manner. 

Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote V 

167. The different manner of representing actions 

Q. What does the word indicative mean ? 

168. Declaring or showing. 

Q. Wlren 1 say, “ William has studied,”- I declare some fact: in wha 
mood, then, shall we class has studied ? 

169. In the indicative mood. 

Q. When 1 say, “ Has William studied ?” the only difference between tty 
phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, so a 
to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call lias Wit 
Ham studied ? 

170. Indicative mood. 

Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, in 
dicating or declaring a thing, or asking a question.* 

Q. In what mood is “ They do sing’’ l Why ? (17L) 

Q. What does the word tense mean ? 

172. Tense means time. 

Q. Wh at docs present mean ? 

173. Present means note. 

Q. When I say, “ The bird sings,” I mean that the bird sings now i i 
what tense, then, is sings? 

174. In the present tense. 

Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 

175. The present tense is used to express what i 
now taking place. 

Q. In what tense is “ The dog runs” ? Why ? (175.) 

Q. “ James, wrote.” “ James has written.” These phrases denote whi 
is past: in what tense are they ? 

176. In the past tense. 

Q. What does the word future mean ; as. “ At some future time” 1 

177. Future means yet to come. 

Q. Tn what tense are the phrases, “ I will come,” “ I shall have come” 1 

178. In the future tense. 

Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and wh 
are they ? 

179. Three—the present, past, and future. 

Q. When I say, “ John wrote,” is the action here spoken of past at 
finished ? 

ISO. It is. 

Q. What does imperfect mean ? 

181. Unfinished , or incomplete. 

Q. “John was writing when I saw him.” This denotes an aclioe ; 
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated 
Latin the imperfect tense: hence the origin of the name selected by Engli 
grammarians to denote action past and finished j a term not all significant 
an action finished iu past time: what, then, does the imperfect tense expres 

182. The imperfect tense expresses what took pla< 
iu past time, however distant. 

Q. 11 Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day Here both acts 


VERBS. 


25 


writing are past and finished j but which has more immediate reference to the 
present time ? 

183. Has written. 

Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called 
it the perfect tense: what, then, wall the perfect tense express ? 

184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken 
place, and also conveys an allusion to the present 
time. 

Q. “ James had read before l wrote.” Here, both acts are past and 
finished ; but which took place first ? 

185. The act of reading. 

Q. What does the word -pluperfect mean ? 

186. More than the perfect. 

Q. What tense, then, shall we call “ James had read” T 

187. The pluperfect tense. 

Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express ? 

188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken 
place at or before some past time mentioned. 

Q. u John will come.” This, you know, was called the future tense i can 
you tell me why ? 

189. Because it implies time to come. 

Q. What, then, does theTuture tense express ? 

190. The future tense expresses what will take 
place hereafter. 

Q. “ I shall have learned my lesson by noon.” Here, an action is to take 
place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already have one 
future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense: what, 
then, will the second future tense express ? 

191. The second future expresses what will have 
taken place at or before some future time mentioned. 

Q. What does simopxis mean ? 

192. A concise and general view. 

Q. ] will now' present you with a synopsis of all the different tenses, Ulus- 
trated by the verb learn: will you repeat it ? 


193. Pres, tense , 
Imp. tense , 
Per/, tense , 
Plup. tense , 
l.sf Put. tense , 
2d Put. tense , 


SYNOPSIS. 

I learn, or do learn. 

I learned, or did learn. 
I have learned. 

I had learned. 

I shall or will learn. 

I shall have learned. 


(U You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, in 
each tense of the indicative mood: these I wish you to *tudy very carefully 
that you may be able to answer the questions w hich will then be asked you. 

194. To learn. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plura.l. 

1 Pers. I learn. 1 Per*-. We learn. 

2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers. 4 ou learn. 

3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers. They learn. 


26 


ENGLISH GRA&MAk. 


OR, 

When we wish to expross energy or positiveness, 
Singular. Plural. 


1. 

to - 

I do learn. 

3. We do learn. 

2. 

You do learn. 

2. You do learn. 

3. 

He does learn. 

3. They do learn. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

3. 

I learned. 

1. We learned. 

2. 

You learned. 

2. You learned. 

3. 

He learned. 

3. They learned. 



OR, 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1 

I did learn. 

1. We did learn. 

2. 

You did learn. 

2. You did learn. 

3. 

He did learn. 

3. They did learn 


Hus— 


Singular. 

1. I have learned. 

2. You have learned. 

3. He has learned. 


PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We have learned. 

2. You have learned. 

3. They have learned 
FLUPERFECT TENSE. 


Singular. 

3. I had learned. 

2. You had learned. 

3. He had learned. 

FIRST 


Plural,. 

1. We had learned. 

2. You had learned. 

3. They had learned 
FUTURE TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I shall or will learn. 

2. You shall or will learn. 

3. He shall or will learn. 

SECOND 

Singular. 

3. 1 shall have learned. 

2. You will have learned. 
He will havo learned. 


3. 


Plural. 

1. We shall or will learn. 

2. You shall or will learn. 

3. They shall or will learn 
FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

3. We shall have learned. 

2. You will have learned. 

3. They will have learned. 


*** For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singu 
lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. 


SYNOPSIS. 


195. 2d Pei'S. Sing. Pres. 

2d Pers • Sing. Imp. 

0 2d Pers . Sing. Per/. 

2d Pers. Sing. Plnp. 
2d Pei’s • Sing. 1st Put. 
2d Pers . Sing. 2d Put. 


Thou learnest, or dost learn. 
Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 
Thou hast learned. 

Thou hadst learned. 

Thou shalt or wilt learn. 

Thou w ilt have learned. 


Q. In what mood is “I leant”? Why? (171.) In what fien<e? Why? 
( 175 .) In what mood and tense is ‘•'He learns” ? “ We learn” ? “I did 
learn”? * ; I have learned”? “I had learned”? “ I shall or % il learn”? 
"J shall have learned”? 

Q. In what person and number is “1 learn”? “You learn”? “ We 
learn” ? “ They had learned” ? “ He shall learn” ? “ We had learned” / 
Q. What does the word auxiliary mean ? 

196. Auxiliary means helping . 


VERBS. 


27 


Q. In the phrase, u 1 will sing-,” will, you oerceive, is used to help 
form the future tense of sing: will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, an<l 
the verb sing is reckoned the principal verb: what, then, are auxiliary verbs 1 

197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which 
are formed the different tenses, moods, &,e. of the 
principal verbs. 

Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the 
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself \ 
what, then, is the sign of the second future I 

198. Shall or will have. 

Q. What is the sign of the first future 7 

199. Shall or will. 

Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect 7 

200 . Had. 

Q. What is the sign of the perfect 7 

201 . Have. 

Q. What is the sign of the imperfect 7 

202 . Did. 

Q. We can say, “ I did strike yesterday,” or, “ I struck yesterday”? how 
then, can we tell when a verb is in tho imperfect tense without the sign did ? 

203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and 
make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. 

Q. What is the sign of the present tense ! 

204. Do, or the first form of the verb. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear 
to have, and what are they ? 

205. Six—the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ They have arrived .” 

206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— 
personal ; it always represents the same person— third 
person; it denotes the persons spoken ol— plural; it 
means more than one— 44 Nom. lie; Pass, his; Obj. him. 
Plural. Nom. they”—made in the nominative case to 
have arrived , according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

Have arrived is a vere, a word that implies action or 
being —active : it implies action —intransitive ; it does 
not admit of an object— indicative mood ; it simply indi¬ 
cates or declares a thing— perfect tense; it expresses 
what has just taken place—“ 1. I have arrived ; 2. You 
have arrived; 3. He has arrived. Plural , 1. We have ar 
rived; 2. You have arrived; 3. They have arrived”—made 
in the third person plural, because its nominative they is, 
and agrees with it, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 

number and person. 


28 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED 
1 . 


“They had come.” 

“We did go.” 

“ The bird will return.” 

“James loves William.” 

“ Susan beats him.” 

“ I have beaten them.” 

“ She had beaten us.” 

“ You shall assist him.” 

“ It did disturb me.” 

“ Do I disturb you ?” 

“ Did they learn their lessons ?” 
“Have they recited?” 

“ Does the instructer teach us ?” 
“Had he dismissed him?” 


“ The sun has risen.” 

“ Dogs will fight.” 

“ Lions will roar.” 

2 . 

“ Columbus discovered America.” 
“ Piety promotes our happiness.” 
“ He will learn his lesson.” 
“John did make great progress.” 
“ They do study their lessons.”, . 
“ Boys love sport.” 

3 . - 

“Shall I expect your assist¬ 
ance ?” 

“ Will a virtuous citizen commit 
such (1.) acts ?” 

“ Have you found your knife ?” 


XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Q. What does He may write” imply ? 

207. Permission or liberty to write. 

Q. What does “ He tnust write” imply 1 

208. Necessity of writing. 

Q. What does “ He can write” imply ? 

209. Power or ability to write. 

Q. What does “ He should write” imply 1 

210. Duty or obligation to write. 

Q. What does 11 He would write” imply ? 

211. JVill or inclination to write. 

Q. What does the word potential mean ? 

212. Able, or powerful. 

Q. In w hat mood, then, do g-rammarians reckon can learn, may write . and 
also must write, should write, See. I 

213. In the potential mood. 

Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered to 
be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that form 
of the verb w inch implies power ? 

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and 
almost numberless extent. 

Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply ? 

215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, obligation, or necessity. 

Q. What are the signs of this mood ? 

216. May, can, must, might, could, would, and should . 

Q. What does the word conjugation mean 1 


(1.) Adjective. 




VERBS. 


217. Uniting , combining , or joining together. 

Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with it; 
hence this exercise is called conjugation; what, then, do you understand by 
the conjugation of a verb ? 

21S. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com¬ 
bination and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, 
numbers and persons. 


219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

Sihgular. Plural. 

1. 1 may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. • 

2. You majr, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 

3. lie may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. Tiiey might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 


PERFECT 

Singular. 

1. 1 may, can, or must have 

learned. 

2. You may, can, or must have 

learned. 

3. He may, can, or must have 

learned. 


TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We may, can, or must hav® 
learned. 

2 You may, can, or must have 
learned. 

3. They may, can, or must have 
learned. 


PLUPERFECT TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 

2. You might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 


Plural. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 

2. You might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 

3. They might, could, would, or 

should have learned. 


St/nopsis of the Second Person Singular , with Thou. 

220 . 

Pi ts. Thou mayst, canst. or must learn. 

Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. 

Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. 

Plug. Thou migbtst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned. - 


ll. In what mood is “I may learn” l Why 1 (215.) 

Q. Will vou repeat the synopsis with 1? then! he? we? ye? vou? tuey 7 
Q In wliat mood, tense, number ai.d person, is “lean learn”?-. “You 
may learn” ? “You might assist "1 “They could have learned”? “lie 

D1U q! in^vhat mood and tense is 11 1 have learned” ? “ He shall rua” ? '* Wil- 

liiundid^j^ot 1 con j H g ate [ mrn j H the present tense, potential mood / Will 


30 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


you conjugate love m the same mood, and imperfect tense 7 Strike, in the 
perfect tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ? 

Q,. How many tenses has the potential mood ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 


“ He may return .” 

221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— 
personal ; it invariably represents the same person— mascu¬ 
line gender; it represents a male— third person; it de¬ 
notes the person spoken of— singular number; it implies 
but one—and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent— 
“ Nom. he" —nominative case to may return , by 

R ule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

May return is a verb ; it implies action or being— ac¬ 
tive ; it implies action— intransitive ; it does not admit 
an object after it— potential mood ; it implies possibility, 
liberty, &,c.— present tense; it denotes what may be 
now—“ 1. I may or can return ; 2. You may or can return; 
3. He may or can return”—made in the third person, sin¬ 
gular, because its nominative he is, with which it agrees, 
according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative casein 
number and person. , 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


1. 

“ He may ccnne.” 

“ He might retire.” 

“John can assist me.” 

“William must obey his in- 
structer.” 

“We may have erred.” 

“John’s father would go.” 

2 . 

“I do rejoice.” 

“We do learn.” 

“John will resume his task.” 
“An industrious bov will be 
rich.” 


“ Boys may learn arithmetic.” 

“ The wind may have shaken 
the trees.” 

“ The lady could have procured 
her fan.” 

“James may catch the thief.” 

“ They might learn.” 

“The committee will visit the 
school.” 

“ An idle boy will find pov¬ 
erty.” 


XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB 

To be. 

> 22S. When I say, u I am ai home,” you know that am is a verb, because, 
it implies being or existence , and since to be means to exist, the \ trb am has 
been called the verb to be. 

223. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 


Singular 

1. I am. 

2. You are. 

3. He is. 


VERBS. 


31 


IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I was. 1. We were. 

You were. 2. You were. 

He was. 3. They were. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular Plural. 

I have been. 1. We have been. 

You have been. 2. You have been. 

He has been. " 3. They have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 had been. 1. We had been. 

You had been. 2. You had been. 

He had been. 3. They had been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

You shall or will be. 2. You shall or. will be. 

He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

You will have been. 2.. You will have been. 

He will have been. 3. They will havo been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
v PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. P lural. 

I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must bo 

You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 

He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might,'could, would, or 1. We might, could, would. 


07 


should be. 

You might, could, would, or 
should be. 

He might, could, wotrld, or 
should be. 

PERFECT 

Singular. 

I may, can, or must have been. 

You may, can, or must have 
been. 

He may, can, or must have 
been. 


PLUPERFECT 

Singular. 

I might, could, would, or should 
have been. 

You might, could, would, or 
should have been. 


should be. 

2. You might, could, would, ot 

should be. 

3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. 

TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We may, can, or must have 

been. 

2. You may, can, or must have 

been. 

3. They may, can, or must have 

been. 

TENSE. 

Plurai. 

]. We might, could, would, or 
should have been. 

2. You might, could, would, or 
should have been. 


He might, could, would, or 
should have been. 


3. They might, could, would, or 
should have been. 


32 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular with Tiiou. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. 


Pres. Thou art. 

Imp. Thou wast. 

Perf. Thou hast been. 
Plup. Thou hadst been. 

1 Put. Thou shalt or wilt 

be. 

2 Fut. Thou wilt have 

been. 


Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 

Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst be. 

Per/,\ Thou mayst, canst, or must 
have been. 

Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have been. 


XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. 

Q. Why is am a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why 
is it so called ? (222.) 

Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with I through the indica 
tive mood 1 

Q. Wilt you conjugate aw in the present indicative? Imperfect? Per¬ 
fect? Pluperfect? 1 Future ? 2 Future? Present potential ? Imperfect? 
Perfect ? Pluperfect ? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person is “ I am” ? u Am I V* “ You 
were” ? u I have been” ? Have you been ?” “ He may or can be” ? “ Wo 
should be” ? “ lie may have been” ? “ They should hav% been” ? “ Thou 
shouldst have been” ? “ Thou mayst be” ? 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with thou? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ The girls were industrious .” 

225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being— neu¬ 
ter ; it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply be¬ 
ing— indicative mood ; it simply indicates or declares a 
thing— imperfect tense ; it expresses past time—“ 1. I 
was; 2. You were; 3. He was. Plur. 1.* We were; 
2: You were; 3. They were, or girls were”—made in the 
third person plural, because its nominative girls is, with 
which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun 
to describe it —“ industrious, more industrious, most industri¬ 
ous”—in the positive degree ; it describes, without any 
comparison — and belongs to the noun girls, according to 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de¬ 
scribe. 

[TT* For the and girls, apply Rules 111. and VI. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

“William is attentive.” “ Am I young ?” 

“John is studious.” “ Was 1 wrong ?” 

“ We are jealous.” “ Have we been wicked 

/ Thou art dutiful.’* “ Were they penitent ?” * 


ADVERBS. 


S3 




* Mary has been intelligent.” 
u The boys will have been du¬ 
tiful.” 

“ Their estate was small.” 


“ Washington was patriotic.” 

“ Columbus was enterprising.” 
“ My wife’s mother is sick.” 


% 


XV. OF THE ADVERB. 


Q. When I say, tl The bird flies swiftly,” I do not mean by swiftly to de¬ 
scribe bird: what does swiftly describe ? 

226. The manner of flying. 

Q. To what part of speech is syoiflly joined in the phrase, “ The bird flies 
swiftly”? 

227. To the verb flies. 

Q. What does the word adverb signify ? 

228. Joined to a verb. 

Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly 1 

229. Adverbs. 

Q. “ John runs very swiftly.” Which word here describes or shows how 
iwiftly John runs ? 

230. Very. 

Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or describe 
adverbs ? 

231. Adverbs. 

Q. u Industrious, more industrious, most industrious.” What are more 
and most called here, and Why ? 

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify ad¬ 
jectives. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition 
of adverbs 1 

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. 

Q. “ John visits me often, but Thomas oftener .” In this example, we see 
that adverbs may be compared: will you, therefore, compare soon / 

234. “ Soon, sooner, soonest.” 


Q. Will you compare wisely? 

235. “ Wisely, more wisely, most wisely.” 

Q. How do adverbs eitft ing in ly appear to be compared ? 

236. By the adverbs more and most. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare admirably ? foo/isldy ? 

Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon 
above ; but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which is 
not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs va¬ 
riously compared : will you repeat the comparative and superlative of each, as 
I name the positive ? 

237. Positive. Comparatii'e. Superlative. 

oftener, oflenest. 

more, most, 

better, best, 

sooner, soonest, 

more justly, most justly, 

more wisely, most wisely, 

less justly least justly, 

worse, worst. 


Positive. 

Often, 

Much, 

Well, 

Soon, 

Justly, 

Wisely, 

Justly, 

Badlv or ill. 



238. Note.— Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few 
classes. You will now rca«! with attention the following list, and I will then ask you 
some questions respecting each class. 

1. Ot* 7 lumbers as, w Once, twice, thrice,” &c. 

2. Of older: ns, “ First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally,” &o. 

3. Of place: as, 51 Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, 
herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whcnco, 
hence, tbrnce, whithersoever,” &c. 

4. Of t::ie. 

Of time present: as, “"Now, to-day,” &c. 

Of time past: as, “ Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long 
since, lung ago,” &.c. 

Of time to come : as, “ To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, 
Dy and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways,” &c. 

Of time indefinite: as, “ Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, 
doily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again,” &c. 

5. Oi quantity: as, “Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, 
abundantly,” &.e. 

6 . Of manner or quality -• as, “ Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly,” 
&c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind j and they aro generally formed 
by adding the termination ly to an adjoctivo or participle, or changing le into ly : as, 
“ Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably.” j 

7. Of doubt: as, “ Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, porchanco.” 

8 . Ot affirmation.: as, “ Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, 
surely, indeed, really,” Sc c. 

A. Of negation: as, “ Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,” &c. 

10. Of interrogation: as, “ How, why, wherefore, whether,” &.c. 

11. Of comparison: as, “More, most, bettor, best, worse, worst, less, least, very 
almost, little, alike,” &.c. 

When a proposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its appli 
cation: as when we say, “Ho rides about?' “Ho was near falling 3 ” “ But do not 
after lay the blame on me.” 

There are also some adverbs, which aro composed of nouns, and the letter a used 
instead ol at, on, Sc c. : as, “Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abeu, 
aground, afloat.” 

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number ? two of order ? two of place 7 
two of time present 7 two of time past 1 two of time to come ? two of time 
indefinite i two of quantity ? two of manner or quality ? two of doubt ? two 
of affirmation ? two of negation ? two of interrogation ? two of comparison ? 

Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : how, then, can you tell one 
froni the other ? 

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe 
or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. This fact should be remembered 3 you shall, therefore, have it in the 
form of a rule : wall you repeat it ? 

RULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs , adjectives , and other 

adverbs . ^ 

Q. From bad we form the adverb badly ; how, then, may a large class of 
adverbs be formed ? \ 

240. By adding ly to adjectives. 

Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? from great ? from 
sinful t 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ The bird sings sweetly.” 

241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the 
verb sings, agreeably to 

Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs , adjectives , and other 
adverbs. 

Sings, bird, and the are parsed as before. 




PREPOSITIONS. 



&• 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

Adverbs qualifying verbs. 

“ The soldiers marched slowly.” “ They will return soon/* 

“ The girls sing delightfully.” “ The boys tvrite admirably 
“ Henry improves rapidly.” “ Susan dances elegantly.’* 
Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 

“He was very attentive.” “James is more studious.-* 

“John is quite busy.” “Walter is most studious.” 

“ William is really studious.” “ Ellen is less happy.” 

Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. 

You learn grammar very “ James writes most elegantly.” 
well.” “ I will assist you most cheer- 

'* The boys write too fast.” fully.” 

“ He will come much oftener.” 

Adverbs promiscuously used. 

“ He has read once.” “ John is not happy.” 

“ I will first remind you.” “ Wlfiiier shall I fly ?” 

“ 1 saw him yesterday.” “ My brother sends me the pa- 

“ I have eaten sufficiently.” per monthly.” 


XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION. 

Q. To say, “ The cider is—cellar,” would make no sense : can you inform 
me what would make sense ? 

242. “The cider is in the cellar.” 

Q. By placing’ the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen¬ 
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ? 

243. It connects words, and thereby shows the re- 
lation between them. 

Q. What does the word preposition mean ? 

244. Placed before. 

Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed be¬ 
fore other words to connect them with words preceding f 

245. Prepositions. 

Q. What, then, are propositions ? 

24G. Prepositions are words used to connect words, 
and thereby show the relation between them. 

247. List of the principal Prepositions. 


Among 

at 

concerning 

near 

throughout 

around 

by 

down 

of 

touching 

amidst 

below 

except 

off 

up 

athwart 

between 

excepting 

on 

upon 

after 

beneath 

for 

over 

under 

about 

behind 

from 

out of 

underneath 

against 

betwixt 

in 

respecting 

unto 

across 

beside 

into 

to 

with 

above 

beyond 

instead of 

towards 

within 

according to 

before 

notwithstanding 

through 

without 

Q. Will you mention the prepositions beginning with a? with b7 ct dt 
H i? n? o? r? t? u* to? 


36 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Q. Will you now repeat all the prepositions ? 

Q. Do we say, “ He works for I,” or, “ He works fbr me” ? 

Q. In what case is me 1 (127.) 

Q. What case, then, follows prepositions ? 

248. The objective case. 

Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule: will you, 
therefore, repeat 

RTJXjIj X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case . 


EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ John found his hat in the road” 

249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect \#ords, 
and show the relation between them ; it here shows the rela¬ 
tion between hat and road. 

Road is a noun ; it is a name— common ; it is a general 
name— neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female— 
third person; it is spoken of— Singular number; it 
means but one— objective case ; it is the object of the rela¬ 
tion denoted by the preposition in, and governed by it accord 
ing to 

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case .* 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


“John ran through the house 
into the garden.” 

“We have deceived him to our 
sorrow.” 

“We came in season.” 

“ You study grammar for your 
improvement in language.” 

“ From virtue to vice the prog¬ 
ress is gradual.” 

“They travelled into France 
through Italy.” 

“ He lives within his income.” 

“ Without the aid of charity, he 
lived very comfortably by 
his industry.” 


“ I will search the house dili¬ 
gently for him.” 

“We might learn the lesson 
before them.” 

“ According to my impression, 
he is in fault.” 

“ Notwithstanding his poverty, 
he was the delight of his 
acquaintances.” 

“ On all occasions she behaved 
with propriety.” 

“ Of his talents we might say 
much.” 

“We may expect a calm after 
a storm.” 


XVTI. OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. When 1 say. “ Jonn——his book/’ the sense, you perceive, is incom¬ 
plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 

250. “ Jonn reads his book.” 


# The remaining word* are o arsed as before. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 


37 


Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing’ expression is called ? 

251. A sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 

252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense. 

Q. “ Life is short.” This expression is called a sentence ; can you tell me 
.vhat kind, and why ? 

253. It is a sftnple sentence, because it makes sense, 
and has but one nominative and one verb. 

Q. What does the term compound mean ? 

254. It means composed of two or more th 'mgs. 

Q. “■ Life is short, and art is long.” This sentence is made up of two sim 
pie sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ? 

255. A compound sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 

256. A compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences connected together. 

Q. What does the term conjunction signify ? 

257. Union , or joining together. 

Q. In the compound sentence, “John writes, and William learns,” the 
simple sentences are joined together by the word and: what word, then, may • 
and be calied ? 

258. A Conjunction. 

Q. “ The king and queen are an amiable pair.” In this sentence, words 
and not sentences are connected by ami: can you point out the words so con 
nected ? 

259. King and queen. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the con¬ 
junction ! 

260. A conjunction is used to connect words and 
sentences together. 

Q. When 1 say, “ Five and four are nine,” what do I mean ? 

261. Five added to four make nine. 

Q. What, then, is implied by and? 

262. Addition. 

Q. When I say, “ I will go, if you will accompany me,” what does the 
conjunction if imply? 

263. Condition or supposition. 

Q. What does the word copulative mean ? 

264. Uniting, joining, or Unking together. 

Q. Ami, if *fce. are called copulative conjunctions : can yon tell me why 1 

265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or 
continues a sentence by expressing an addition, a 
supposition, a cause, &c. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you re 
peat them ? , 

266. “ And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, 

since, then, that, therefore, wherefore.” 

Q. Whetilsay, “ James and John will come,” I mean both will come $ 
but when 1 say, “ James or John will come,” what do I mean ? 

26?: That either James or John, one of them, will 


come. 


4 


38 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined 1 

208. Disjoined. 

Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining ? 

209. Or. 

Q. What part ef speech is or ? 

270. Conjunction. % 

i2. What ooes the word disjunctive mean 1 

27 1. Du joining or separating . 

Q. Wha* kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call or? 

272. A disjunctive conjunction. 

<1. “ Jame A'ili come, hut Henry will not.” Here the two clauses of the 
sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, .and the word but separate* 
<thc.se two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ? 

273. Opposition of meaning. 

Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive con¬ 
junction ? 

274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sen¬ 
tences, by expressing opposition of meaning in vari¬ 
ous degrees. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you re¬ 
peat them ? 

275. “But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, nei¬ 
ther, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding.” 

Q.. Prepositions, vmt recollect, connect-words as well as conjunctions i 
show, then, can you tell the one from the other ? 

276. Prepositions show the relation between words, 
but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a 
cause, or an opposition of meaning. ^ 

Q,. “ He and she write.” In what case is he? she? 

Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, and 
connected bv the conjunction and: when, then, may norms and pronouns 
bo connected ? 

277. When they are in the same case. 

Q. “ She will sing and dances.'’ Ho^ may this sentenco be corrected ? 

27S. “ She will sing and dance.” 

\ Q. In what mood and tense is “ She will sing” ? 

Q. To say, “ She dance,” is incorrect; dance, then, in this example, can¬ 
not be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what “ She will sing and 
•dance” means, when fully expressed ? 

279. u She will sing and she will dance.” 

Q. Here xciil dance is hi the future tense, as well as sing: when, then, 
may verbs, in general, be connected 1 

2S0. When they are in the samemood and tense. 

Q. From tht* foregoing particulars, what appears to be the nde for the use 
•of conjunctions, in comiecting worcis ? 

RUM XX. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense , and nouns or pronouns of the 
same case . 


INTERJECTIONS. 


39 


EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“John assists his father and mother 
28i. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect 
words and sentences— copulative ; it connects father and 
mother. 

Mother is a noun ; it is a name— -common ; it is a general 
name— feminine gender ; it is the name of a female— 
third person ; it is spoken of— singular number ; it 
means hut one—and it is one of the objects of assists, and 
is, therefore, in the objective case, and connected with 
father by the conjunction and, according to 

Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same arise. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


** I will reward him and them at 
some future time.” 
u We in vain (1.) look for a path 
between virtue and vice.” 

“ Reproof either hardens or 
softens its object.” 

“ In the morning of life, we ea¬ 
gerly pursue pleasure, but 
oftentimes meet (2.) with 
sad disappointments.” 

* A good scholar never mutters 
nor disobeys his instructor.” 


8he reads well, dances (3.) 
elegantly, and plays admi¬ 
rably on the piano-forte.” 

“ Intemperance destroys the 
mind and benumbs the 
senses ofman.” 

“ You may read this sentence 
first, and then parse it.” 

“ He has equal knowledge, but 
inferior judgment.” 

“ John rises early in the morn¬ 
ing, and pursues his stud¬ 
ies.” 



XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. 


q. When I exclaim.. “ Oh ! I have ruined my friend,'' “ Alas ! I fear for 
life,” which words here appear to he thrown in between the sentences, to ex 
press passion or feeling 7 

282. Oh! Alas! 

Q. What does interjection mean 7 

283. Thrown between. 

Q. Whal name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas. &c. f 

284. Interjections. 

Q. What, then, are interjections 1 . , ,, .i 

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the 

parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden 
feelings of the speaker.____ 


( ] ) In rain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an 
nnected, the former with reacts, and the latter with dances, b> Rule XL 





40 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief; as, “ O! oh ! alas ! ah !” 

2 . Of wonder; as, “ Really ! strange !” 

3. Of calling; as, “ Halloo! ho ! hem!” 

4. Of attention; as, “ Behold ! lo ! hark!” 

5. Of disgust; as, “ Foil! fy ! fudge ! away !” 

6. Of silence ; as, “ Hush ! hist!” 

7. Of contempt; as, “ Pish ! tush !” 

8. Of saluting; as, “ Welcome ! hail!” 

Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of 
grief? One of wonder? One of calling? One of attention? One of dis 
gust ? One of silence ? One of saluting ? 

Q/ How may an interjection generally be known ? 

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ Oh ! I have alienated my friend .” 

287. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas¬ 
sion or feeling. 

(D 5 * The remaining words are parsed as before. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


“ Oh! I must go and see (1.) 
my dear father before (2.) 
he dies.” 

“We eagerly pursue pleasure, 
but, alas ! we often mistake 
the road to its (3.) enjoy¬ 
ment.” 


“ Strange! I did not know 
you.” 

“ Hush ! our instructer is at the 
door.” 

“ Fy ! how angry he is !” 


(1.) The sense is, “ I must go, and I must see the verb see, then, agrees 
with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go, according to 
Rule XI. 

(2.1 Before, an adverb. 

(3.) Apply, first, Rule V. $ then. Rule L 









RECAPITULATION. 



CRITICAL REMARKS. 


COMPOSITION. 

XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write 
he English language correctly. 

289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 


290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 

2. Etymology, 4. Prosody, 


XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature 
and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correct^. 
This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-biJpB 
and dictionaries 

292. Orthograpi 



293. Etymology teaches how'to form, from all the words 

in the English language, several grand divisions or so is, 
commonly called Parts of Speech. A 

294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use*f 
wor d s —also their different changes and derivations. 

295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. 


XrX. VVbat does English grammar 


How is a knowledge of orthograpn 


•nd touch ? 291. 


leach ? 288. . . 

Into how many parts is it divided.'’ 289 
What are they? 290. 

XX. What doos orthography include 


usually obtained ? 291. 

What does orthography mean ? 292. 
XX f. Whatdoes etymology teuch 1 293. 
What does it include i 294. 

What does the word s.gnify ? 295 





42 


, 

W | 'v-' * ^ 


t y# 


4 

i 


i •% 


English grammar. 

' T 4 > f 

XXII. OF SYNTAX. 



KjJ 


jS 


ifj 


ange or form woras intoV 

o ' 


29G. Syntax teaches how 
sentences correctly. 

297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi¬ 
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers aijdf, 

speakers. ✓ * 

298. Syntax signifies ai'ranging or placing together ; or, as used in gram¬ 
mar, sentence-making. 


XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED' 


299. The words of the English language are usually 
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, 
namely, 


Noun, 

Article, 

Adjective, 


Pronoun, 

Verb, 

Adverb. 


Preposition, 

Conjunction* 

Interjection. 


XXIV. OF NOUNS. 


300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; 
as, man, London, knife. 

301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. 
Common nouns are general names; that is, they are names 

common to all individuals of the same kind or sort; as, house, 


w 


cim. river. 

4 / 7 

302. Proper nouns art^fmrticular names ; that is, they 
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or 
sort; as, George, Boston, Mississippi. 

303. When proper names have an article placed before them, they are used 
as common names ; as, “ lie is the Cicero of his age.” 


304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun j 


XXII. What does syntax teach ? £96. 
What docs it include? 297. 

What does the word signify? 298. 
XXIII. Mow many different sorts of 
wvds are there ? 299. 

J\ T hat arc they ? 299. 

What are these sorts of words com¬ 
monly called ? 299. 

XXIV. What does the word noun 
mean ?* 

What is a noun? 300. Give an exam- 
#le. 

How many different kinds of nouns are 
there, and what are they? 301. 


What does the word common mean. 
31. 

What is a common noun? 301. Give 
an example. 

What does proper mean ? 34. 

What is a proper noun ? 302. Give an 

example. 

When proper nouns have an article he- 
fore them, how are they used? 303. Give 

an example. 

Are proper names used as such in the 
plural? 304. 

Why cannot proper names have a plu¬ 
ral ? 304. 


* Sec I. 1st answer. 







NOUNS. 


43 


as, u The twelve Ccesars or, “ The seven Jameses.” This is obvious from 
the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object only, 
and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Spqiiiard. Euro¬ 
pean, American, Ac. are common nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards 
Europeans, Americans, Ac.* 

305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi¬ 
tion of articles or pronouns; as, “ The boy is studious ;” “ That girl is dis¬ 
creet.” 

306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, ora col¬ 
lective noun ; as, “ The people” “ The army.” 

307. Abstract signifies taketifrom: hence an abstract noun is the name of a 
quality abstracted from its substance; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, Ac. 

308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. 


XXV. PERSON. 

309. When any person, in speaking, introduces' his own 
name, it is the first person; as, “ I, James, of the city of 
Boston, do give,” &lc. 

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second 
person ; as, “ James, come to me.” 

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, 
is the third person ; as, “James has come.” 


XXVI. GENDER. 


312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

313. Nouns have four genders—the masculine, the femi¬ 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; 


as, man , boy , &,c. 

315. The feminine gender 
as, woman , girl 

What do they become when so used? 
301. Give ail example. 

What kind of nouns are Spaniard, 
Americans, Spaniards 7 304. 

What effect does the use of articles 
have on common nouns ? 305. 

What is a noun of multitude, or a col¬ 
lective noun? 30f>. Give an example. 

What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give 
an example. 

What belong to nouns? 308. 

XXV. When is a noun of the first 
person ? 309. Give an example. 


denotes the name of females; 


When is a noun of the second person ? 

310. Give an example. 

When is a noun of the third person.' 

311. Give an ex am ole. 

XXVI. What does the word gender 
mean ? 14. 

What is gender as applied to nouns ? 
319. 

Whatdoesthe word masculine men n ? 15. 
What does the masculine gender of 
nouns denote ? 314. Give an example. 
What does feminine mean? 19. 

What does the feminine gender denote ? 
315. Give an example. 


* Spain it the proper name of a country, and Spaniard lias, by some grammarians, been called the proper 
name of a people; but the latter is a generic term, characterizing any one of a great number of persons, by 
tbeir connection with Spain— Encyclopaedia. 




44 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


S10. The common gender denotes the names of such 
animals as may be either male or female; as , parent, bird. 

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects 
which are neither males nor females; as, chair , tabic. 

313. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called, 
become masculine or feminine; as when we say of the sun, “ He is setting/ 
ami of a ship, “ She sails well,” &c. 


311). The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz. t 
319-1. By different words} as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 

Maid. 


Hour, 

Sow. 


Boy, 

Girl. 


Brother, 

Sister. 


Buck, 

Doe. 


Bull. 

Cow. 


Bullock or ) 
Bitter, \ 

Heifer. 


Cock, 

Hen. 


Dog, 

Bitch. 


Drake, 

Duck. 


Earl, 

Countess. 


Father, 

Mother. 


Friar, 

Nun. 


Gander, 

Goose. 


Hart, 

Roe. 


Horse, 

Mare. 



319-2. By a difference 

Male. 

Female. 


Abbot, 

Abbess. 


Actor. 

Actress. 


Administrator, 

Administratrix. 


Adulterer, 

Adulteress. 


Ambassador, 

Ambassadress. 


Arbiter, 

Arbitress. 


Baron, 

Baroness. 


Bridegroom, 

Bride. 


Benetactor, 

Benefactress. 


Caterer, 

Cateress. 


Ghruiter, 

Chant rcss. 


Conductor, 

Conductress. 


Count, 

Countess. 


Czar, 

Czarina. 


Deacon, 

I leaconess. 


1 hike, 

Duchess. 


Elector, 

Elcetrcss. 


Emperor, 

« - -- - 

Empress. 



Mate. 
Husband, 
King, 
Lad, 
Lord, 
Man, 
Master, 
Milter, 
Nephew, 
Ram, 

Singer, 

Sir, 

Sloven, 

Son, 

Stag, 

Unde, 

Wizard, 


Female 

Wife. 

Queen. 

Lass. 

Lady. 

Woman. 

Mistress. 

S pawner. 

N icce. 
Ewe. 

( So 

( Singer. 
Madam. 
Slut. 

Daughter 

Hind. 

Aunt. 

Witch. 


Songstress or 


Male. 

Enchanter, 

Executor, 

God, 

Governor, 

Heir, 

Hero, 

Hunter, 

Host. 

Instructer, 

Jew, 

Landgrave, 

Lion, 

Marquis, 

Mayor, 

Patron, 

Peer, 

Poet, 

Priest, 


Female. 

Enchantress. 

Executrix. 

Goddess. 

Governess. 

Heiress. 

Heroine. 

Huntress. 

Hostess. 

Instructress. 

Jewess. 

Landgravine. 

Lioness. 

Marchioness. 

Mayoress. 

Patroness. 

Peeress. 

Poetess. 

Priestess. 


What Joes tin: common gender denote ? 
3it>. Give an example. 

Whnt does neuter mean? 23. 

What does the neuter gender denote ? 
317. Give an example. 

What is said of nouns naturally neu¬ 
ter, in respect to gender? 318. Give an 
example. 

How many genders do nouns have, anil 
vlilit are they ? 30. 

Mow many methods are there in Eng- 
ish of distinguishing>ex? 319. 

Which is the first ; as, boy 1 girl ? 319-1. 
Will you «:•>'!! the feminine correspond¬ 
ing to brother ? 319-1. to boy? nephew! 


wizard 1 friar ? sir ? drake 7 earl ? gander 7 
hart. : king ? lad f man ? Master ? singer 7 
siorat 1 son ? stag? uncle ? 

V\ ill you spell »ho masculine corre¬ 
sponding to maid ? girl? madam? donah 
ter ? niece ? ° 

hat is the second method of distin¬ 
guishing sex ; as, abbot? abbess? 319-2. 

Will you spell the feminine corre¬ 
sponding to abbot? actor? ad>nivistrator 7 
baron ? benefactor ? l/riilcgroom ? conduct¬ 
or ? czar ? duke ? emperor ? crcevtor 7 
god ? governor ? heir ? hero ? host ? hunt¬ 
er? instructer? Jew? lion? marquis? 
patron? peer ? proprietor ? shepherd ? sor- 









NOUNS. 


41 


Male 

Prince, 

Prior, 

Prophet, 

Protector, 

Proprietor, 

Shepherd, 

Songster, 

Sorcerer, 


Female. 

Princess. 

Prioress. 

Prophetess. 

Protectress. 

Proprietress. 

Shepherdess. 

Songstress. 

Sorceress. 


Male. 

Sultan, 

Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 


Female. 

Sultaness, 

Sultana. 

Tigress. 

Traitress. 

Tutoress. 

Viscountess. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 


319-3. By prefixing a noun, pronoun, or adjective : as. 


A cock-sparrow, 
A man-servant, 

A he-goat, 

A he-hear, 

A male child, 
Male descendants, 


A hen-sparrow. 

A maid-servant. 

A she-goat. 

A she-bear. 

A female child. 
Female descendants. 


XXVII. NUMBER. 


320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one 
or more. 

321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 

323. The plural number implies more than one; as, boys. 

324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only; 
as, wheat, gold , sloth, pride, dutifulness. 

325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; 
as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &lg. 

320. Some nouns are the same in both numbers; as, 
deer, sheep, swine. 

327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 

328. The irregular mode of forming (lie plural is as follows : when the noun 
singular ends in x, ch, sh, or ss , we add es to form the plural ; as, box, boxes : 
church, churches; lash, lashes; Iciss, kisses. 

329. Nouns ending in f or fe, change these terminations into ves to form 
the plural; as, loaf, loaves; wife, wives. 


cerer 7 sultan 7 tiger 7 tutor 7 viscount 7 
votary 7 widower 7 

Will you spell the masculine corre¬ 
sponding to abbess 7 czarina 7 duchess 7 
ambassadress 7 heroine 7 huntress 7 poet¬ 
ess 7 prophetess 7 widow 7 
What is the third method of distin¬ 
guishing s<jx ; as, a vuu^-servant 7 a maid- 
servant7 319—3. 

Will you spell the feminine corre¬ 
sponding to wale child 7 nude descendants 7 
XXVII. What does the word number 

mean ? 5. 

What doeB the number of nouns show ? 

320. 

What does singular mean ? 6. 


What does the singular namber of 
nouns imply ? 322. Give an example. 

What does plural mean ? 10. 

What does the plurul number of nouns 
imply? 323. Give an example. 

How are wheat, gold, «fcc. used ? 324. 

How are bellows, lungs , <fce. used ? 325. 

What is said of deer , sheep, &c. ? 320. 

How many numbers do nouns have, and 
what are they ? 321. 

How is the plural number regularly 
formed? 327. Give an example. 

When do we add es to form the plural ? 
328. Give an example. 

What is the plural of loaf7 329 

What is the rule for it ? 329 




*6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


330. When a noun singular ends in y. witn a vowel before it. the plural is 

formed regularly; as, key, keys ; delay , delay*; ralley y valleys.. Bui if uie y 
does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y uito let; 
nSfJlif.Jlies; beauty, beauties. % 

3%*1. The following uouns form their plurals not according to any general 
rules :— , 


Slug. PI nr . 

Man, Men. 

Woman, Women. 
Child, Children. 
Ox*, Oxen. 

Tooth, Teeth. 

Foot, Feet. 

Goose, Geese. 


Siug. 

Mouse, 

Louse, 

Cow, 

Fenny, 

Die, 

Pea, 


PI nr. 
Mice. 

Lice. 
Cows or 
Kinc. 
Pence. (1.) 
Dice. (2.) 
Peas. (3.) 


Sing. PI nr. 

Fish, Fishes. (3.) 

Cupful, Cupiuls. 

Spoonful, Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law. 
Court-martial, Courts-martial. 

. ( Brothers or 

Brother, < Brethren. 


332. Mathematics , nietavhysics , pneumatics, ethics , politics, &t*. arc reck¬ 
oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true ot means, 
alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda , minutiae, literati . &c. are always plural. 
Jiandit is now considenujpthe singular of banditti . r J im noun 7ieics ts always 
lingular. Mt ny nouns Term their plurals according to the law sot the Ian 
guage from winch they are derived. The following are ol this class 


Singular. 

Antithesis, 

Ap'pcndix, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton 

Axis, 

Roan, 

Jhssis, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Diuresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 


Plural . 
Antitheses. 

( Appendixes or 
( Appendices. 
Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata 

Axes. 

Beaux or Beaus. 
-Bases. 

Calces. 

^ Cherubim or 
^ Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

I)i<*reses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 

( Encomia or 
( Encomiums. 
Errata. 


Singular. 

♦ Genius, 

Genus, 

Hypothesis, 

' Ignis fatuus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 

Magnus, 

Memorandum, 

Metamorphosis 

Parenthesis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Stamen, 

Seraph, 

Stimulus, 

Stratum, 

Thesis, 

Vertex, 

Vortex, 


Plural. 

Genii. (4.) 

Genera. 

Hypotheses. 

Ignes falui. 

Indices or 
Indexes. (5.) 
Laminae. 

Magi. 

Memoranda or 

Memcramhims. 

Metamorphose#. 

Pa rent! loses. 
Phenomena. 

Radii or Radiuses, 
Stamina. 

Seraphim or 
Seraphs. 

Stimuli. 

Strata. 

Theses. 

Vertices. 

Vortices or 
Vortexes. 


Will you spell the plural of delay 7 3 30. 
valley? What is the rule for forming 
these plurals? 1130. 

Will you spell the plural of fly? 330. 
beauty 1 Rule for the plural ? 

I)o7#att, woman, form their plurals reg¬ 
ularly, or irregularly ? 331. 

Will you spell the plura! of man? of 
woman 1 child ? ox 1 tooth ? foot ? goose 7 
wo use ? loiise ? brother 1 die? Jisiil spoon- 
fu I 7 con r t viariial 7 

Will you spell the singular of lice? 
kin el com si brethren? oxen 1 teeth? 
pence 1 pennies 1 peas 1 fishes 1 cupfuls 1 
brother sdv - l iiw 1 

What is the plural of pea, when we re¬ 
fer to quantity ? Offish 1 


What is the singular of banditti* 

332. 

In accordance with what laws docs an¬ 
tithesis form the pjural ? 332. 

Will you spoil the plural of apex 7 ap¬ 
pendix? arcanum? anUrm a ton 1 axis? cri¬ 
sis? basis1 criterion ? datum? desidera¬ 
tum? effluvium? encomium 1 erratum? 
genius ? index 1 memorandum 1 

Will you spell the singular of bases 1 
beaux1 cherubs? ellipses1 genii? theses? 
parentheses 1 stimuli 1 strata 1 

How are mathematics, optics, &c. con¬ 
sidered in regard to number? 332? 

Of what number is means? 332. aims? 
amends? antipodes? literati? news? 


(1.) Pennies* when the coin is meant. (2.) Bits, for coining. (3.) Pease acd fish, meaning quaatftiw. 
but peas and fishes , when number is meant. 9 

(4.) Genii , when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits; 'geniuses, when denoting persons of genius. ( 6 .) /»• 
vexes, ivhen denoting pointers or tables of contents; indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. 










NOUNS. 


47 


XXVIII. CASE. 


v 333. Case means the different state, condition, or rela¬ 
tion which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 

334. In English, nouns have three cases—the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, 

and always the subject of the verb. 

335. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; ns, "John assists Wil* 
liam here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the verb 
assists. 

337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, 
property, &.c.; as, “ William’s hook.” This case may be 
distinguished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the 
letter s. ‘ 

338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by 
taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it; as, “ John's 
hat.” 

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case sim¬ 
ply by taking the apostrophe ; as, “On eagles’ wings.” 

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their possessive 
ease bv taking both the apostrophe and the letter s ; as, “ Aten s houses. 

341*. When the singular ends in is, the apostrophe only is added ; as, “ ror 
goodness’ sake:” except the noun witness; as, “ The witntss’s deposition.” 

342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apostrop.ie 
only; as, *‘ For conscience’ sake because an additional s' would occasion to® 
much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation. 

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action 

or relation. , 

344. In the sentence, "John strikes him.” him is ‘In object of the action 
denoted by strikes; and in the sentence, “ He went i-om London tolork 
York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 


345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 


JVomina'ire case, 
Possessive case, 
Objective case, 


Singular. 

Mother, 

Mother’s, 

Mother, 


Plural. 

Mothers. 

Mothers’. 

Mothers. 


Singular. 

Man, 

Man’s, 

Man, 


Plural . 
Men. 
Men’s. 
Men. 


XXVIII. What is the moaning of tho 
wont case ? 47. 

What is meant by the case of nouns ? 


5)33. 


How many cases have nouns, and what 


are they : 334. 

What docs nominative mean ? 49. 

What is tho nominative case ? 335. 
Give an example. 

What do vc u understand by tho sub- 
ject of a verb l 336. Illustrate it by an 

extumde. 

What does possessive mean ? 59. 

What does the possessive caso denote ? 
337. Gi vo an example. 

How muy this case he distinguished 
from the other cases ? 337. 

Jlow do nouns in the smgu'or form 
their powuwiv# onto * 1*38 O’Te ao 


How do nouns in tho plural? 339. 

Wlicn the plural noun does not end in 
f how is its possessive formed? 3b). 
Give an example. 

When the singular ends in *.•*, bow ia 
the possessive case formed? 341. Give 
an example. 

How is the possessive case of nouns 
ending in itce formed ? 342. Give an ox 
ample. 

Why is not tho s added ? 342. 

What does tho word objective moan ? 


What does the objective caso of 
louna donota ? 343. Give an ox* 

nude. 

What does tho declension of nouns 
norm ? t>$. 

Will vmi declii)« rnoltor 1 345» man I 
rather f hail 






48 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




HU£E I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following noun. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 


“John’s wife returned.” 

346. John’s is a proper .noun, of the masculine gender, the 
third person, singular number, possessive case, and gov¬ 
erned by unfe, by Rule I. 

Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, the third] 
person, singular number, and nominative case to returned , 
by Rule VI. 

Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
imperfect tense —“ 1. I returned; 2. You returned; 3. He 
returned, or wife returned”—made in the third person, sin 
gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule VII. 


MORE EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 


“ William’s son has come.” 

“ John’s brother died.” 

“ John makes (1.) boys’ hats.” 
“John lost his knife.” 

“ The boys neglected their les¬ 
sons.” 

“ Intemperance ruins its votaries.” 


“ William’s wife’s sister remain 
ed in town.” 

“ Rufus studied Johnson’s Diction 
ary.” 

“ Mary’s bonnet is old.” 

“ Virtue’s reward is sure.” (2.) 

“ Rufus’s hat is new.” 


SENTENCES TO RE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

“ Trot hers estate.” 

317. I f you examine the foregoing example, you will find it difficult to as¬ 
certain whether tlie estate is the property of one brother or more; if of one 
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus : “ Brother’s estate:” but if it 
be.ongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the s, thus ; “ Brothers’ 
estate.” Mistakes of this sort often occur; hence you perceive the importance, 
in writing, of attending to the subject of grammar. 

“ Mans’ happiness.” 

348. Incorrect, because mans’ is in the possessive case, sin¬ 
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed 
before the .«?, according to the observations above, and Art. 338. 


Will yon repeat, the rule for the pos¬ 
sessive ease ? Rule 1. 

In the sentence, “John’s wife return¬ 
ed,” will you parse John's 1 wife ? re¬ 
turned ? 346. 

Why is John's in the possessive oase ? 
3:37 

What kind of 11 verb is returned ? 316. 

Why ? 153. 

In what rase is wife 7 346. 

Why: 335. 

The pupil may vert parse the addi¬ 
tional exercises in syntax . 

In the phrase, u ferothors estate,**does 
one brother, or more than one, own the 
estate i 347. 


Why cannot you tell ? 

It* only one brother is meant, how 
should the apostrophe he placed ? Ilow, 
if more than one ? 

In the phrase, “ Mans’ happiness,” 
why is it incorrect for the apostrophe to 
follow the s ? 348. 

What is the rule for forming the pos¬ 
sessive case of nouns ? 338. 

Will you now parse man's? 

We spell the possessive case of man 
thus, w-a-n-(apostrophe) s ; will you in 
like manner spell the possessive of John ? 
IVil/iam ? Rufus ? women 7 hoys ? 

£0“ The remaining exercises are to be 
corrected as well as parsed . 


(1) Active-transitive verb. ( 2 .) Adjective, and belongs to mcard, by Rule IV. 







ARTICLES 


49 


Sentences to be parsed 

“ Johns son departed.” 

“ Susans sister will learn.” 

“ Charles task is too difficult.” 

“ 1 have read Willi’s poem.” 


AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

“ I discovered Marias faults.” 

“ Susan made little Harriets bou- 
net.” 

“ Johnson makes mens shoes.” 


EXERCISES TO HE WRITTEN.* 


349. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a 
proper noun, as for example, “ William learns grammar” ? One, 
containing a common noun ? One, containing u noun of the third 
person singular ? One, of the third person plural, and in the 
nominative case ? One, having a noun of the second person 
singular and of the feminine gender ? One, having a noun tiie 
name of some article of food ? One, having a noun the name of 
some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude? One, having 
your own name associated with book; as, “John Griscom’s 
book”? 


XXIX. OF ARTICLES 


350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them 
out, or to limit their meaning. 

351. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

352. A or an is called the indefinite article. 

353. The is called the definite article. 


354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular per¬ 
son or thing; as, u a house/’ u a titan,” that \s } any house, any man. The article 
the is called definite, because it means some particular person or tiling; as, 
u the house,” u the man,” meaning some particular house, some particular matt. 

355. A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h; as, an acorn,” 
u an hour.” But if the h be sounded, the a only is used ; a*, a hand/' 4i a 
heart:” except when the word before which the article is placed, has its ac¬ 
cent on the second syllable; as, “cm heroic action,” u an historical account.” 

356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an; as, u a 
union,” u a university,” u a useful thing.” 

357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing 
one, we sound it as if written wun. 

358. The article a or an means one; as, “ an ounce,” “ a pound,” that 
one ounce, one pound. 


XXIX. YVhat is an article* ? 35U. 
What door? definite 

What is the called ? 36:*. Why ? 354. 
Give an example. 

What dot's indefinite mean ? 81. 

What is /i or an called ? 352. Why? 
354. Give an example. 

How many articles are there ? 351. 
Name them. 

When does a become an 1 355. Give 

%n example. 


Hut 1 1 the h is sounded, whieh i«* to La 
used r AO. Liv« HP "VH'iiph*. 

Wluii exception to this? 355. Give an 
example. 

iLi we hh v, ii a. UHion.” or 41 an un¬ 
ion” ? 44 n university , n or * 4 an univer¬ 
sity” ? Why ? 356. 

Do we say, ic a one/ 7 or 44 an oue 9 * ? 
Why ? 357. 

What does the article a mean ? 358 
Give an example. 


• Either on a date or \u a wmdt maaotertyrt book kept for (be fwipw*. 

5 







50 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




RULE II. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the sin 

gular number. 

RTJSjE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singula 

or plural number. 

359. Exception. When the adjectives few, great many, dozen, hw > 
dred, thousand, itc. come between the noun and article, the noun |l 
which the indefinite article belongs, is plural; as ; “ a few men," u a great ms J | 
ny men." 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“ The bird flies swiftly 

360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, accort 
ing to Rule III. 

Bird is a common noun, of the common sender, the thir 
person, singular number, and in the NOMINATIVE case to JHe 
by Rule VI. 

Flies is an active-intransitive verr, indicative mooiI 
present tense—“1. I fly ; 2. You fly; 3. He flies, or bill 
flies”—made in the third person, singular, and agrees wit 
bird, by Rule VII. 

Swiftly is an adverb, qualifying^iea, by Rule IX. 


EXERCISES in syntax continued. 


“ The boys have arrived seasona¬ 
bly." 

“ Galileo invented the telescope.” 

“ The boy bad an ulcer.” 

“ William gave an historical ac¬ 
count (1.) of the transaction.” 

“ Columbus discovered the conti¬ 
nent of America.” 


“ Children attend the school.” 

“ William founded a university.” 
“ The grass is green.” 

“ Farmers carry hay into tfc 
barn.” 

“ The good scholar obeys his ir 
structer.” 


SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

“ ITe had a ulcer." 

361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except 
long : a should, therefore, he an ; thus, “ an ulcer.” i 

SENTENCES TO RE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUE! 

“ A enemy approaches.” “ Three barley corns make 

“ James procured a inkstand.” inch.” 

“ He conferred a honor.” “ Eight drams make a ounce.” 

“ An unit figure occupies the low- “ They formed ar. union.” ’ 


est place in whole numbers.” 


“Ho quoted an hard saying.” 
“ J'hoinas has lost an horse.” 


What is the rule for the indefinite ar¬ 
ticle ? Rule II. 

What exception to this rule ? 3M. 

What is the rule for the indefinite ar¬ 
ticle ? Rule III. 

In the sentence, “ The bird dies swift¬ 
ly,hew do you parse the ? bird ? flies ? 
swiftly ? 360." 


The remain inf exercises are next 
be parsed from the book . 

Would you sav, “ a ulcer,” or u an u 
cer” ? Why ? 361. 

The pupil should now take the 
maining sentences to be corrected . / 
should be required to parse as well as coi 
rect them . 


(1,) App !r Hide yin. 













ADJECTIVES. 


51 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
»nd in the other the indefinite article ? One, containing a correctly used 
before u long ? One, having a definite article correctly used before the 
consonant h? 

AVill you write two nouns, the names of different thino-s in the 
school-room? Two, the names of different cities? One sentence^ hav¬ 
ing a proper noun used as a common noun ? 


XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 


363. An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to de¬ 
scribe or define it ; as, “ An obedient son.” 

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the 
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of com¬ 
parison—the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

365. The positive degree simply describes an object; as, 
“ John is good .” 

366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the pos¬ 
itive in meaning; as, “ William is better than John.” It 
implies a comparison between two. 

367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi¬ 
tive to the highest or lowest degree; as, “ Thomas is the 
best“ Walter is the worst .” 

368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 

361). The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1.) becomes the 
comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the 
end of it ; as, wise, wiser, wisest, great, greater, greatest.. 

370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made 
6y placing the adverbs more and most before the positive; as, benevolent, more 
benevolent . most benevolent. 

37 J. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ; 
as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y, as, happy, lovely, and in le, after a mute, 
(3.) as, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite, easily 


XXX. What is tho meaning of the 
word adjective ? 95. 

What is an adjective ? 363. Give an 
example. 

How many dogrous of comparison are 
there ? 364. 

Will you name them? 

What does tho positive degree do ? 

365. Give an'example. 

What docs the comparative degree do? 

366. Give an example. 

What does it imply? 366. 

What does superlative mean ? 103. 
What does the superlative degroo do ? 

367. Give an example. 


What does it Imply ? 3C8. 

What is a monosyllable ? 369. 

How are monosyllables compared? 369. 
Give an example. 

How are dissyllables compared? 372. 

What effect do less uud least have on 
adjectives? 37J. 

What is a dissyllable ? 372. 

AVill you spoil the comparative and su¬ 
perlative degree* of able 7 lovely 7 am¬ 
ple! discreet 7 polite1 372. 

Which are tho mutes ? 372. 

How do words of more than two sylla¬ 
bles almost invariably form their compar¬ 
ison ? 372. 


y,) A word of one syllable. (i.) A word of two oyllablet 

(3.) I, A, p, t, »nd c and g bard, are mute*. 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


52 

admit of er and ?st ; as. happier, happiest; abler, ablest. Ac. Words of more 
than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 

373 . In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, ufthermost, uttermost, uppermost.. 

374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do 
not. admit of comparison } as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, inf nite, ceaseless, 
supreme , omnipotent, eternal. 

373. I tv adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison 
below the positive ; as. black . blackish ; salt, saltish. 

37fi. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest; as, “ good,'* 
“ very good.’’ 

377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives; 
as. one, two. three; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared. 

378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as such in pars¬ 
ing 5 as, “ Providence rewards th e good, and punishes the bad.” 


RULS IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“John is sincere 

379. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu¬ 
lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, aiid ill the NOMINATIVE CASE 

to it r, by Rrur. VI. 

Is is a NEUTER VERB, ill the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT 

tense —“ 1. I am; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is,”—made in the 
third person singular, and agrees with John , according to 
Rule VII. 

Sincere is an adjective, —“ sincere, more sincere, most sin- 
fere,” —made in the positive degree, and belongs to /o/m, by 
Rule IV. 


EXERCISES IN 

{i You are studious/* 

0 John is more studious/* 

“ Will inm is most studious/* 

11 Mnry is iiuelhgfeut/* 

4i James is active/ 7 
u Thomas is less active/* 

Charles is happy / 7 
Mary is tall, >Susan is taller / 7 
“ No composition is perfect / 7 
Religion makes its votaries happy 

Is perfect co>p*ptrred ? Why ? 374. 

Will you name several others that 
not compared? 374. 

How is tho superlative formed in the 
word upper ? 373. 

What is the effect of ish added to ad¬ 
jectives? 375. Give an example. 

What is the force of very in compari¬ 
son ? 376. 

What are numeral adjectives? 377. 
Give an example. Are they compared ? 
**77. ' 

^fill you spell the comparative and hu- 


SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

u One man has come / 7 / 

44 Two men have departed / 7 
u Twenty 1, men will sail / 7 
“James wrote his name on the first 
page/* 

< a Here comes a great man/* 

44 Here comes a greater man / 7 
“ Here comes the greatest man/*^ 

“ The first fleet contained five hundred 
men/* 


perlnt.ive degrees of good ? ill ? muck 7 
little 7 

When is an adjective to he considered 
a noun ? 378. 

What is the rule for the adjective ? TV. 
In the phrase, “John is sincere/’ how 
do you parse John 1 is 7 sincere 7 379. 
Why is sincere in the positive degree? 
365. Why do you call is a neuter verb ? 
J57. 

$CT the pupil next take ue exercises 
that follow , and parse as before 




PRONOUNS. 


53 


* XXXI. ^ 

380. Double comparatives and mujerlatives, since they add 
notiiiug to the sense, should be avoieBd ; as, worstr , more wiser , 
&c.; also, lesser , supremest , mosi infmile, <fcc. 


SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a different 
adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the compara¬ 
tive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? 

Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as 

will make sense ? “A •—— boy studies his lesson.” “A - boy 

deserves punishment.” “ A-man helps the-man.” “Mer¬ 
chants own - ships.” “ The instruoter loves - scholars.” 

William is a - scholar, Rufus is a- one, but Thomas is the 

r- one that 1 ever saw.” 


XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 


381. A ruoNouN is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun, 
k 382. A personal pronoun is so called, because it invari¬ 
ably represents the same person. There are five personal 
pronouns—J, thou or vou, he,/she, it. They have per¬ 
son, 'number and case, like nouns; and those of the third 
person have gender also. 

383. / is the first person, thou the second ,she or it, the 
third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 

384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases—the nomi¬ 
native, the possessive and the objective; and two numbers— 
the singular and plural. 


3&5. Mine, and thine, instead of wij and thy, were formerly used in the 
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel or silent h ; 
as, i% Wot out ail mine iniquities.” 


XXXI. Is it correct to say, “A lesser 
evil? 0 Why 'not ? 33u. 

Will you correct the following inaccu¬ 
racies in comparison as I read them to 
you ? 

“ Me is intclligcntcr-” 

“'She is the most wisest. 0 

“ A worser evil.” 

“ William is a bad boy : Joseph is a. 
worser one.” 

“ He gave a more stronger proof of the 
fact than the other. 0 

“ Tlio pleasures of the mind arc more 
(1.) preferable than those of the body. 0 

“ That table i« round, but this is a 
rounder one, and that is the roundest of 
the three. 0 

“ This is more srjua»i. 0 

“A more greater concern. 0 

“ The most fuirust of'all the daughters 
of Eve.” 

His mother’s oxlremost joy.” 


XXXII. What does the word pro¬ 
noun signify ? 120. , 

What is a pronoun ? 361. 

Why is a personal pronoun so called ? 

382. 

How many personal pronouns are there, 
and what are they ? 382. 

Why is this number said to include ail 
the pronouns ? 134. 

Which is the tirst person ? the second? 
the third ? 383. 

To which of the pronouns do wo apply 
gender ? 363. 

Why is not gender applied to the first 
and second persons ? 130. 

Which is masculine? 383. which fem¬ 
inine? 383. which neuter? 383. 

Hosv many cases have pronouns, and 
what are they ? 384. 

liow many numbers ? 38L 

Will you decline II tko% t el sh* 9 
it 7 127. 


(l.\ Vnr mure v.eftraLU than, read mtftralU to* 














54 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


XXXIII. COMH0UND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

38(i. Compound per^al pronouns are formed by adding 
the won! self, in the plural selves , to the simple pronouns, as 
himself, themselves, &c. 


PERSON.' 

CASE. 

singular. 

PLURAL. 

First 

A 'em. 

M yself. 

Ourselves. 


Fuss. 

I f mting. 

— 


Oh/. 

Myself. 

Ourselves. 

Sepntvl. 

Nam. 

Thyself, or ) 
Yourself, > 

Yourselves. 


Foss. 




Oh). 

Thvself, nr £ 
Yourself, $ 

Yourselves. 

'Third. 

Norn. 

I fimself. 

Themselves. 


Foss. 




I )bj. 

i limself, 

Themselves. 


Nnm. 

Herself, 

Themselves. 


Foss. 




Oh). 

l lerseif, 

Themselves. 


Nam. 

Itself. 

Themselves. 


t*oss. 



* 

Ohj. 

Itself, 

Themselves. 


aULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number and person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“ John found his knife." 

387. John is a. proper noun, of the masculine gender, the 

THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE to 
found , by Rule Yf. 

Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative 
mood, imperkkct TENSE—“I. I found; ‘J. You found ; d. He 
or John found” — made in the third person singular, and 
agrees with John, by Rule VII. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singu¬ 
lar, masculine gender, and agrees with John, according to 
Rule V.; in the possessive case, and governed by knife , b> 
Rule !. 

Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, 
neuter gender, the objective case, and governed by found , 
according to Rule VIII. 


Of what unrnher and person is mine! 
ours ? me 1 icc 1 thus ? thine 1 yua ? 
yours ? 127. 

»>f what srendor, number and person is 
In > she 1 it 1 

Of what number, person and case, is 
the:' ? ours 1 his I hers ? mini’'! 

In what style worn mine and thine for¬ 
merly used ? 385. 

"VXIll. How nrethc rompomtlT’per- 
•»uis formed l 38d. 


\\ hat is the rule for tins agreement of 
personal pronouns in tho phrase, ** John 
found his knife” ? V. 

How bo you parse John '! 387. 

Will yon parse 'John in the phrase. 
” John found his knife” r 387. 

t\ ill you parse found 1 his ? knife 1 
387. 

{CgThe learner should next, parse, the re¬ 
maining exercises in Syntax, from the book 
and then, take the exercises fa be written 
















EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED 
1 . 


“James obtained his request.” 

“ I will assist you.” 

“ He will receive his reward.” 

“ She misused him.” 

‘‘ Sin ruins its votaries.” 

An indulgent father will reprove 
his son when (1.) he deserves 
it.” 

' A dutiful son gladdens the hearts 
of his parents.” 


“ Ye despise reproof.” 

“ They mend their pens.” 

Mary tore her handkerchief.” 

“ Virtue has its reward.” 

“ She deceived them.” 

“John is in distress, and I will 
assist him.” 

“ I found Mary and her mother in 
trouble, and (2 ) comforted (3.) 
them.” 


EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal 
oronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun ol the first per¬ 
son plural ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, 
so as to make sense ? “ — lost my hat, but found — again.” “ Let 

Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson.” “The 
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes.” 

Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable 

words to make sense? “ Intemperance-evil.” “ Washington 

-lather of his -.” “ Columbus- America.” “ Boston 

- inhabitants.” “ The-- ocean is - miles wide.” “- 

— first man.” 


XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 


388. In the sentence, “Both wealth and poverty are temptation.,; rant 
(ends to excite pride, this discontentyou perceive that the word that repre¬ 
sents - wealth, and * he word this poverty. 'Plus and that <l<>, therefore, resent 
blc pronouns, and tnav, lor tins reason, be called pronouns. 

889. When 1 sav,This house is mine, that barn is vours/’ the words this 
and that an* joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specilv them : they 
iishv. cm this account, be called adjectives. 

:}<){). Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble 
both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are some¬ 
times called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 

:$9I. The adjective pronouns may he divided into three 
.sorts—the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite.- 
;J92. The distributive are those that relate to persons or 
things, taken separately and singly. 


X.VVIV. What :ir<; adjective pro- 

innir!« i 

Why nrn limy so fulled ? 3S8, 8H!(. 

By what outer name Imve these pro¬ 
nouns keen called ? 3')0. 

Will vou give an example in which 
these words resemble pronouns ? 388. 


(inn in which they resemble adjectives ? 

Into how many sorts mar these pro 
nouns he divided, and what are the' - 
89 J. ^ ■ 

What is a distributive prone- 


A* 


(2.) O 


% 


(1.) Adverb. 













ti rH- v\ >•* a* 

% C- V ' 

• 6<3 LNG1.ISH GRAMMAR. 




\ 


A A 


393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS. 

Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 

391. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately j as, 
“ Each of his brothers is doing well.” 

595. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them, taken separately ; as, u Every man must account for himself.” 

39G. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and 
signifies the one or the other; as, “ I have not seen either .” lienee to say, 
u Either of the three,” is incorrect. 

397. Neither, means not either} that is, not one nor the other j as, 
u Neither of my friends was there.” 

398. The demonstrative (2.) pronouns are those which 
precisely point out the things to which they relate. 


399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 


Sing. 

This, 

That, 

Former, 

Latter, 


Plu.. 

These. 

Those. 

Former. 

Latter. 


400. This and these, refer to'me nearest persons or things ,—that and those to 
the most distant; as, “ These gloves- are superior to those . “ Both wealth and 
poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent.” 

40 i. The indefinite are those that refer to things in an 
indefinite or general manner. 


INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 


402. Some, OTHER, ANY, ONE, ALL, SUCH, NONE. Ol 
these pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. An- 
othcr is declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. 


403. 


404. 


>. Nom. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

Other, 

Others. 

Foss. 

Other’s, 

Olliers’. 

Ohj. 

Other, 

Sing. 

Olliers. 

Flu. 

If. Nom. 

One, 

Ones. 

Foss. 

One’s, 

Ones’. 

Obj. 

One, 

but u These books j” 

Ones. 

This book,” 

7 

also, “ One man, 1 


n - 


men hence, 

405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must 
agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. 


Why is it so called ? 393. 

Which arc they ? 393. 

What does each refer to 3 394. Give 
an example. 

What does every relate to ? 395. Give 
an example. 

What does cither relate to ? 396. Give 
an example. 

tVtjat does neither mean ? 397. 

V\ hat does demonstrative mean ? 398. 

What are demonstrative pronouns ? 
398. 

Which are they ? 399. 


Which are singulur ? 399. Which plu¬ 
ral ? 399. 

What do this and these refer to 3 400. 

What do that and those refer to? Give 
an example. 400. 

W hat does indejinite mean ? 81. 

W hat is an indefinite pronoun ? 401. 

Which aro they? 402. 

V\ ill you decline other ? 403. 

YVill you decline one? 404. 

What note do you apply in parsing ad¬ 
jective pronouns ? Note X. 


(1.) So called from distribute , to divide among several. 

(2.) So called from demonstrate, tot prove or show rrtcisthi. 








PRONOUNS. 


57 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. * 

“ These two hooks belong to me.” 

40G. These is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative 
kind, in the plural number, and belongs to books, according to 
Note I. 

Two is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books , by Note I. 
Books, belong, &c. are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


44 


<4 

44 


(4 


4.4 


44 


Every man performs his 
creation.” 

Each man arrived at his station.” 

Either party can repair the in- 

^ jury.” 

Some persons cannot acquire 
wealth.” 

•Many people obtain riches with 
apparently little exertion.” 

One boy labors for his improve¬ 
ment. ” 

This man neglects his affairs.” 


Those men make many pre¬ 
tences to religion.” 

All rational beings desire happi¬ 
ness.” 

J3y application almost any boy 
may acquire an honorable 
rank in his class.” 

Good and virtuous men will, 
sooner (1.) or later (I.), attain 
to happiness.” 


44 


part in P These men might remain with 
us.” 

44 


44 


44 


“ The old bird feeds her young ones.” 


407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in 
the common gender, third person plural, in the objective 
case, and governed by feeds, agreeably to Rule V III. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 


“ One boy influences many oth- ethers spend their time in idleness; 

ers.” the former will receive praise, the 

“ None act their part: too well.” latter censure.” 

“ Some scholai;s,«Uutly diligently ; 

We csyyftbt say, “ Them ran,” but “ They run” : hence, 

-Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the 

verb, it should be in the nominative case. 

It is very common for persons in-conversation to sav, “ Them books/’ 
" Them knives,” &r. instead of “ Those books,” “ Those knives;” Arc. The 
incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal m tue plat e of 
an adjective pronoun : hence, 

Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the 
place of these or those. 


In the phrase, “ These two books,” 
&c. will you parse these ? two ? 406. 

Will you now take thebook, and parse 
the remaining exercises under Note I ? 

In the phrase, “ The old bird feeds her 
young ones, 5 ’ will you pass ones? 40/. 

Will you correct by Note I. the follow¬ 
ing examples, us 1 read them to you ? 

“ He will not come this two hours.” 
tL J dislike those sort of books.” 

« 1 have two canes ; you may have any 

of them.” ,, 

Do we say, 4< They run,” or Them 
run”? Why ? Note II. 

Will you now correct, by Note IT. the 
following examples as i read thorn to you? 


44 Them will go.” 

44 Him and me went to church.” 

44 Art thee well ?” 

44 Him who is diligent will improve ” 

Would you say, iL *Them knives,” or 
44 These knives” ? Why ? HI. 

In what does the incorrectness con¬ 
sist ? III. 

Will you correct the following expres¬ 
sions ? 

44 Them hoys are very idle.” 

44 Bring me them pens.” 

44 Which of them three things do you 
prefer ?” 

QCT'The pupil may next take, the exer¬ 
cises to be written. 


(1.) Adverb. 







58 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective 
pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having an in¬ 
definite pronoun used as a noun ? 

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow¬ 
ing phrases ? “ When Harriet found — book, — tore —,and then flung 
— away.” “ — man likes — farm, — merchandise,” 

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under 
Rule II.? Rule Ill. ? Rule IV. ? Rule V. ? Rule VI. ? 


XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 


408. In the sentence, “ That man is happy, who lives virtuously,” the 
word loho Is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun man), and it is 
a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence, 

409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for 
some noun before it in the same sentence, v 

410. There are three relative pronouns, viz. 

411. Who, which, and that. 

412. Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, “ The man 
who came,” 


410. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, 
“The bird which sings,” “ The tree which I planted.” 

414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to dis¬ 
tinguish one of two individuals, or? particular person among many others $ 
as, “ Which of the two is lie l “ Which oftksm has gone 

415. That , as a relative, is often used^ in speaking either 
of persons or things, in the place of who or wftish ; as, 

‘ he boy that reads,” or, “ The boy who reads $” “ The bird thul flew,” or, 

1 he-bixd which no., “ The bench that was made,” or, “ The bench which 
was made.” 

i hat is used in preference to who or which, in the following cases :■— 

1. In speaking both ol persons and things ; as, “ The man and the beast 
that 1 saw, perished.” 

2. In speaking of children ; as, “The child that I met.” 

3. Alter the adjective same; as, “ He is the same man that we saw yester¬ 
day.” 

4. After the superlative degree j as, “ He is the wisest man that the world 
ever produced.” 

5. After the relative who ; as, “ Who that reflects.” 

j' Excin‘i iux. 'That, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im- 
mct.idlrh before it j as, u He is the same man with that you were iicouaiiitcd.” 
ror with that, read with whom. . It is remarkable, however that, when the ar- 
rangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition : as, “ lie is 
the same mail that you were acquainted with.” 


XXXV. In the sentence, “That man is 
happy, who lives virtuously,” what part 
of speech is who ? Why ? ' 408. What 
kind ? Why ? 408. 

Wlmt is a relative pronoun ? 409. 

Will you name them ? 411. 

Vv hen clo we use who 1 Give an exam¬ 
ple. 112. 

When do we use which ? Give an cx- 
~'»le, 413. 

hat ease? do wo use which, in 


speaking of persons ? Give an example. 

When may that be used ? 415. 

Is it correct to say, “ The child who” ? 
Why not? “The same man who”? Why 
not? “ Tho wisest man which” ? Whv 
not ? “ Who, who retlects” ? Why uot ? 
415 j 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 

What exception is mentioned? 415 _ I 

Give an example. 415—1. 






PRONOUNS 


59 


4-16—1. We can say, “The man who/' or “The men who/' using the 
relative who in speaking either of one man or more than one : who, then, is of 
both numbers, and is thus declined : 


Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Who, Who. 

Foss. Whose, Whore. 

Ohj. Whom. Whom. 


417. Which and that are of both numbers, but they are not declined, ex 
cept that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; as, “ la 
theie any other doctrine whose followers are punished ?” 

418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three 
words j as, “ Philosophy whose end,” for “ the end of which.” 

419. Antecedent signifies going before. 

420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which the 
relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative ; as, “ John, 
who has gone.” Here, John is the antecedent of who. 

421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you 
should not get the impression that the last two are always relatives j for that is 
a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which; that is, when icho 
or which may bo used in its place, without destroying the sense ; as, “ Here is 
the knife that I found,” which can be altered to “Here is the knife which I 
found,” without injury to the sense. 

422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, 
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an 
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction ; as, “ He studies that ho 
may learn.” 

423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a rcla 
tive pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunc 
tion. 

424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, a^kvell as personal pronouns 
they should tltereforc agree with nouns in the same particulars and by thesaiwe 
rule. Rule Y. will therefore apply to both. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“ That man is happy who lives virtuously 

425. That is a demonstrative fronoun, of the singular 
number, and belongs to man , by Note I. 

Who is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of the MASCULINE GENDER, THIRD 

person singular, and agrees with man , by Rule V. It is in 
the nominative case to lives, according to Rule VI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

“ That man is fortunate who cs- “ I met the same man in the mar- 
capes censure.” ket to-day (1.), that 1 met 

“•The girl whom I saw,perished.” yesterday in the street.” 

How many numbers hns who! 416. When is tlrat an adjective pronoun? 

Will you (!ec.mo il ? 416—1. Give an example. 422. 

How many numbers have which and When a conjunction ? Give an exnni- 
that 7 Are they declined ? 417. pie. 422. '• 

What exception to this ? 417. How many different parts of speech 

When whose is used as tho possessive may that ropre'eut ? 423. 
caso of which, how many words does it What is the rule for the agreement of 
represent ? Givo an example. 418. relative pronouns ? 424. 

What is the me#ing of antecedent, 7 Will you parse that in the phrase, 
41 <), “That man”? 425. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun? In the',sentence, “ That, man is happy 

Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously,” will you parse 

Is that always a relative? 421. who 7 425. 

When is it 'a relative ? Give an ex- Will you now take *he book, and par***'' 
ample. 421. tho remaining exercises? 


(I.) Adverb. 







GO 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




“ You, who came first, should re- “. That house, which stands on tl 
tire first.” hill, once (1) belonged to me 

You taught the boy whose hat I “ The boy whom 1 instruct lean! 
found.” well.” 


SENTENCES TO RE PAUSED AND CORRECTED. 


“ The man which / saw.” 

42G. Incorrect; because, in speaking of persons, who, whos 
or whom is generally to be used. Jt should therefore read, “ TL] 
man whom f saw.” 


SENTENCES TO UK 


PAUSED AND COUUEUTED, 


continued. 


** The bird whom 1 killed had made 
her nesf? r * 

“ The man which visited me has 
left town.” 

“ That man is happy whom is vir¬ 
tuous.” 


“ Thou who are in prosperity mu 
assist me in adversity.” 

“ He which shuns vice does get 
erally practise virtue.” 

“ 1, who lives by your charity 
should be grateful.” 


SENTENCES 'fO RE WRITTEN. 


Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative who ? On< 
containing which ? One, containing that ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctl 

used ? “ The man-siih» shali die.” “ The boy- studies vvi 

learn.” “ 'Hie bird- sung 50 sweetly lias flown.” Will you fi 

up the following with one or more words that will make sense ? “ lu 

temperance-evils.” “ If-truth-sorry.” 

Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the follow in 
words? Washington,* Culumbus, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom 
Uichts, James Monrut. 


XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATE VI 

PRONOUNS. 


427. 


428. 
what, in 


“ 1 took what you gave me." 
u I took that which you gave me." 

4 * l took the thing which you gave me." 

“ 1 took those things which you gave me." 

P>y examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the \>ufJ 
ilie first example, means the same as the words in italics in the sue 


cessive ones : tlie word what, then, is clearly a pronoun ; mid because it siaud 
lor more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word befon 
the relative which , in die please “ that which," or “ the thing which," is tin 
antecedent of which. Hence, 

4-9. What is a compound relative pronoun, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally etjuiva¬ 
lent tO THAT WHICH. 


Jnstotid of saying, 11 The man which i tences which same as “ I imd 

savT. M what should 1 say ? Why ? 42ti. what you gave ? 437. 

Will you correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for: 
mg exercises, and then take the exercises 428. 

Ui he written ? . Why is what a pronoun ? 428. 

XXXV I. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun? 428. 


Wn 


* ( id Advrrh. 

p ;j‘ “ VV ' 4ltlu K l ' n *»» * 4c. rtu uuty torW. m »<W) *. 

When do wo use . 

413. 


hat casoe do wo u* 













PRONOUN^. 


G1 


430. Who, which, and what liavc sometimes the words ever or sower an¬ 
nexed (1.) to them : and each combination of this sort is called a compound 
relative ; as, whoever, whosoever, whichever , whichsoever, &cc. They are not 

often used. 

431. Who which, and what are called interrogatives, or relatives of the in¬ 

terrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions ; as, “ Who is he V 7 
“ Which is the book ?” “ What are you doing !” These relatives, you per¬ 
ceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase contained in 
the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows alter the relative ; 
as, “ Whom did you see V 7 Aiis. “ John." Here John is the subsequent to 
winch whom refers. • 

432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each 
other in meaning ; the former signifyinggoiwg before, the latter following after. 

433. Whether was formerly made use of to expiess interrogation ; as, 
“ Whether of these shall I choose 1" but it is now seldom used, the interrogative 
which supplying its place. 

434. Winch, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to 
nouns, are adjective pronouns ; as, “ unto which promise our twelve tribes." 

435. When what and which are joined to nouns in asking questions, they 
are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, “ Which horse did he take 1 " 

43G. In some instances, we find what used in the seitse of an interjection j 
as, “ What! take my money, and then my life V 7 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“ I will leave what is useless .” 


437. What, in the example above, means the same as u that which,” or 

the thing which” ; we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it has 
the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parse it 
as standing for thing, and secondly for which. 

What is a compound relative pronoun, and is equivalent 
to “ that which,” or “ the thing 1 which.” In representing thing , 
it may be considered a pronoun of the third person singu¬ 
lar, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed by 
leave , according to Rule YIII. 

What , in representing which , may be considered a relative 
pronoun of the third person singular, neuter gender, and 
relates to thing for its antecedent, according to Rule V. and in 
the nominative case to is, by Rule VI. 

Is is a neuter verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense —“I. I am; 2. You are; 3. He or ivhich is” — made in the 
third person singular, and agrees with which, the relative 
part of the pronoun what, according to Rule VII. 

Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs 
to what , by Rule IV. 


How may what bo described ? 429. 

Will you irive three examples of com¬ 
pound pronouns formed by annexing ever 
or sower ? 430. 

What is the meaning of anvered ? 430. 
When are icko, which, uud whet called 
interrogateves ? 431. 

What are the nouns called, to which 
enterrojrative* refer? 431. 

What is the meaning of subsequent ? 

m. 

Why so called ? 431. 

In the phrase, li Whom did you see ?” 
tins. u John”j which word is the subse¬ 
quent ? 43 J. 


When are what, which, and that adjec¬ 
tive pronouns ? Give an example. 434. 

Which of the rojative9 are sometimes 
Interrogative adjective pronouns? VVhen? 
435. 

When I say, u What! rob me of my 
money, and then take my life?” m what 
sense is what used r 436. 

fn the sentence, “ I will leave what is 
useless,” how do you parse whatl is 1 
useless 1 137. 

What, does what stand for? 437. 

Do you parse it as one word or two? 
What two? 437. 

&CT V 'he pupil may now parse the re* 
mtuning exercises on the pronoun what# 


(1.) Pternl after. 







ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


02 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

“ James will do what is proper.” “ William demands what I cannot 
“ You heard what I said.” give.” 

“ Whatever improves delights “ They advocate what is excel- 
him.” lent.” 


XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 


438. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds— active, passive, and neuter. 

439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is 
always the nominative case ; as, “ John runs.” Active verbs 
are either transitive or intransitive. 

440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or 
may have an object after it, on which the action terminates; 
as, “ John beats William.” 

441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has 
' nor can have an object after it. 

442. Passive, means suffering or receiving. 

443. When I say, “ John is beaten by William,” is beaten is a verb, because 
it expresses action 3 and it is a passive verb, because it expresses the action 
received by John] and if John receives the action, then he is the object of it t 
hence, 

444. A passive verb expresses action or effhet received. 

445. The object is always its subject or nominative case. 

446. Active nominative, or actor, “ John strikes William.” 

447. Passive nominative, or object, “William is struck 
by John.” 

448. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the verb 
is active, its nominative is likewise active 5 and when the verb is passive, its 
nominative is likewise passive. 

419. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasion; 
when we wish to state u'liat has been done, without exposing tiic author; thus 
instead of saying, “ William struck'John,” I can, to avoid alluding to William 
say, “ John was struck.” 


XXXVII. What is the meaning of 
verb 1* 

Why so called ? 143. 

What is a verb? 433. 

What is an active verb ? 439. 

What is always its nominative? Give 
an example. 439. 

What is the meaning of transitively of 
intrai.sitive 

I low may active verbs be divided? 439. 

When is an active verb transitive ? Give 
an example. 440. 

When is an active verb intransitive ? 
Give ap-cxample. 441. 

Whut is the meaning of passive 1 442. 


In the example, “ John is beaten b 
William!” which is the verb? Why 
What kind? Why? 443. 

Which word is the object ? Why ? 441 
What, then, is a passive verb ? 444. 
Which is the nominative to a pnssit 
verb, the agent or the object ? 445. 

Is the nominative to an active verb ac 
ive or passive ? Give an example. 448 
Is the nominative to a passive verb a 
tive or passive? Give an example. 41 
In what particular is the passive voi" 
a convenient form of expression ? Give it 
example. 449. 

What ia the meaning of neuter ?$ 


* See question to Mi. t See question to 160. { See question to 152. J See question to 157. 






MOOD. 


63 


450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor pas¬ 
sive, expressing simply either being or existence in a certain 
state ; as, “ He sits ” “ He is at home.” 


XXXVIII. MOOD, OR MODE. 

451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action 
or being. 

452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating 
or declaring a thing, or asking a question: as, “ I walk 

“ Do I walk ?” 

453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi¬ 
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or with¬ 
out asking a question ; as, “ I may go “ May I go ?” “ He 
must read,” &,c. 

454. Of the subjunctive mood. The tenn subjunctive signifies subjoined 

or added to. & J 

455. When I say, <c l will go, if he desire it,” the phrase “ if he desire it” is 
added on to the one before it: hence we say, “ if he desire it” is in the sub¬ 
junctive mood. The term, however, is limited to such sentences as are pre¬ 
ceded by the conjunctions if, unless, although, except, lest, &cc., which imply 
doubt or some uncertainty. 

456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt 
or uncertainty. 

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different 
forms. It is equally correct to sav, u If he is poor, he is respected,” and “ If 
he be studious, he will excel.” 'Die verbs be and is are both in the present 
tense j and since each has the conjunction if before it, each is in th«j subjunc¬ 
tive mood. 

458. The phrase u If he be studious” means the same as u If he will be 
studious;” it therefore plainly implies future time. 

459. On the contrary, in the phrase “ If he is poor,” the sense plainly is, 
44 If he is now, at the present time, poor,” without any reference to future tune. 

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is implied; 

and in the other, both doubt and future time. , 


What is a neuter verb ? Give an exam¬ 
ple. 450. 

How many kinds of verbs are there, and 
what arc they ? 138. 

XXXVIII. What is tho meaning of 
mood ? 1(36. 

What is mood l 451. 

What is the meaning of indicative 1 
168. 

What is the indicative mood used for ? 
Give an example. 452. 

What is the meaning of potential ? 212. 
What is the potential mood used for? 
Give an example. 453. 

What is the meaning of subjunctive ? 

454. 

In what mood is “If he desire it”? 

455. 


/ How is the term subjunctive limited ? 
455. 

What is the subjunctive mood used for *. 
45C. 

Ilow many different forms has it ? 457 
Give an example of each. 457. 

In what tense are the verbs be and is t 
457. 

In whnt mood is each with the con¬ 
junction if before it ? 457. 

Whnt does “ If lie he studious” mean, 
as it respects time ? 458. 

What tense, then, is referred to ? 453. 

What does “ If ho is poor” mean, in 
respect to time ? 459. 

What idea, then, is implied in the one 
form ? 460. 

What two ideas in the other form ? 460. 



G4 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


I 

401. Tlte verb is correspond:? with the common form of the verb to be, in 
the indicative mood, present tense j ns, “ 1 am, you are, he is:” -we will, 
therelore. when ihe verb is varied as usual, call it the common form of the sub- ^ 
junclive mood ; ami when the verb is not varied in the different persons, wC 
will rail u the subjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. \ou 
should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present tense, 
it being customary to vary the terminations of tiie verb in the remaining tenses, 
as usual. _ 4 

4fi2. i he following general rules will direct you in the proper .use of the 
subjunctive mood : 

4(i3. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present 
tense, lias a reference to future time, we should use the 


464. Singular. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou or you love, 

3. If he love. 


SUHJUN'CTIVE FORM. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. I f ye or you love. 

3. If they love. 


4(>5. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has no reference to future time, we should use the 


COMMON FORM. 


Singular. 

1. Ifl love. 

2. If thou Invest, or 
If you love. 

3. If he loves. 


Plural. 

If we love. 

If ye love, or 
If you love. 

3. If they love, 


466. Other conjunctions, besides if , are used before the subjunctive mood. 
7/is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more strongly than 


most others. 

467. Ily the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in the sub¬ 
junctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood; as, “ He will not be 
pardoned unless lie repent,” that is, “ unless he will repent;” “ If thou ever 
return, thou shouldst be thankful,” that is, “ if thou shouldst ever return.” 

463. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com¬ 
mon form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it; as, 
“ 1 walk,” the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if; thus, 
“ If I walk.” 


469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub¬ 
junctive ; as, “ 1 can go” is the potential ; “ If I can go,” the subjunctive. 

470. Of the imperative mood. When I say, “ Jolm, mind your book,” 
I command John to do something; and because imperative means command¬ 
ing , we say that mind , in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood. 


With what docs the verb is correspond l 
461. 

How is the verb varied in the common 
form of the subjunctive mood ? 461. 

Why called common? How varied in 
the subjunctive form ? Why called sub¬ 
junctive? 461. 

How is this distinction limited? 461. 
How are the remaining tenses variod ? 
461. 

When do we use the subjunctive form? 
463. 

Will you conjugate the verb love in this 
form, in the present tense? 464. 

When do we use the common form? 
465. 

Why ia the conjuration if used most 


frequently in the subjunctive mood ? 4tG. 

What does “ He will not he pardoned 
unless lie repent” moan ? 467. 

VVhat, then, is understood ? 467. 

“ If thou ever return, thou shouldst bo 
thankful:” what does this mean ? 467. 

What, then, is understood ? 467. 

What is always understood in this form ? 
467. 

How may a verb in the indicative mood 
be converted into the subjunctive ? 468. 

How can the potential be changed to 
the subjunctive ? Give an example. 469. 

In what mood is “John, mind your 
studies?” Why? 470. 

What is the meaning of imperative 1 





MOOD. 


C5 


471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214.) embraces the following 

particulars: b 

1. Command; as, u John,, sit up.” 

2. Entreaty ; as, “ Do visit me.” 

3. Exhorting ; as, “ Remember my counsel.” 

^ 4. Permitting; as, " Go in* peace.” 

472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 

473. I he Application of this mood is limited to the second person; as, 
il John, come to me;” because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty 
&c. we must necessarily address some one; hence you can see the reason 
why this mood has but one person, viz. the second. 

474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in pres¬ 
ent time, to do any thing in past time, yesterday for instance; consequently a 
verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 

475. When I command a person to do any thing, the performance of the 
command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of me com¬ 
mand ; that is, in future time; but the command itself must, from the very 
nature ol the case, take place in present time: this mood, therefore, cannot, 
strictly speaking, have any future tense: hence, 

476. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in 
the second person. 

477. Of the infinitive mood. In the phrases, u John begins to sing,” 
11 The boys begin to sing,” “ Thou beginnest to sing,” you perceive that the 
verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of its 
different agents, John, the boys, and thou: hence to sing is said not to be 
limited either by person or number. 

478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, sisniifvin^ not 
limited: hence, 

479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action 
not limited either by person or number. 

480. 7b, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, “ Let 
me go,” instead of" Let me to go;” “ f heard him say it,” for “ I heard him 
to say it.” This little word to, when used before verbs in this manner, is not 
a preposition, but forms a part ol the verb, and, in parsing, should be so con¬ 
sidered. 

481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five 
moods—the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the 
subjunctive, and the infinitive. 


How many particulars does this mood 
embrace? 471. Why so many ? 214. 

What, then, is the imperative mood 
used for ? 472. Give an example of com¬ 
manding ? one of entreating ? one of ex¬ 
horting? one of permitting? 471. 

How many persons lias this mood? 473. 
What person is it ? 473. 

Has this mood any past tense ? Why ? 

474. 

When f command a person, when, if at 
all, must the performance of the command 
take place? 475. 

When, or in what time, must tiie com¬ 
mand itself he given ? 475. 

Has this mood, then, any futuro tense ? 

475. 

How many tenses, then, has it ? How 
many persons ? 47C. 


What is the meaning of infinitive! 
478. 

In what inood is sing, in the phrases, 
“ John begins to sing,” “The boys begin 
to sing,” Thou beginnest to sing”? 
477, 478. 

In what particulars is this mood reckon¬ 
ed not to be limited ? 477. 

What, then, is the infinitive mood used 
for ? 4791 

What is the usual sign of this mood* 
480. 

Is it always expressed? Give an exam 
plo. 480. 

How is the sign to to he parsed? 480. 

Why parsed with the verb ? 480. 

Ilow mjny moods are there, and what 
are they ? 481. 


0* 



66 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


XXXIX. OF TENSE. 

482. The present tense expresses what is now taking 
place; as, “John swims.” 

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons long 
since dead ; as, “ Seneca reasons and moralizes well.”_ 

484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before , after, as soon 
as , &c., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; as, 
4i When he arrive*, he will hear the news.” 

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in 
their nature unchangeable; as, “ Truth is eternal;” “ William boldly asserted 
there was no God properly, il is no God.” 

488. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes used 
for the imperfect; as, “ He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants } 
be fights and conquers, lakes an immense booty, which he divides among his 
Soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph.” 

487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in 
time past, however distant; as, “ John died.” 

488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, 
and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, “I have 
finished my letter.” 

489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we 
use the imperfect tense ; as, “ John wrote yesterday ;” but when no particular 
post time is specified, wo use the perfect tense; As, u I have read Virgil rnauy 
limes.” 

490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that is 
past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually re¬ 
maining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has 
been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a 
manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak 
of the present century, we sav, “ Philosophers have made great discoveries in 
the present century but if we speak of the last century, we say, u PhiloSo* 
pliers made great discoveries in the last century.”—“ He has been much 
Afflicted this year.” u I have lliis-.jveek read the king’s proclamation.” u I 
have heard great news this morning.” In these instances, He has been , 1 have 
read , and heard . denote tilings that arc past; but they occurred in this year, 


XXXIX. What is the meaning ot'pres¬ 
ent ? 173. 

What does the present tense express ? 
482. Give an example. 482. 

“ Seneca reasons well.” What tense is 
employed here ? Why? 483. 

In the phrase u When he arrives,” 
fjture time is alluded to: why, then, is 
the present employed ? 484. 

Do we sav, “ There is,” or “ there was 
no God?” Why? 485. 

What is the meaning of animated2 486. 

Meaning of narrations ? 486. 

u He enters the territory,” &.c. Why is 
the present tense used ? 486. 

What is the meaning of imperfect, ? 181. 

How came this term to he used, to de¬ 
note an action past and finishe.fr* 

What does the imperfect tense express ? 
487. Give an example. 487. 

Meaning o f perfect ?f 


What does the perfect tense express ? 
Give an example. 488. 

“John wrote yesterday.” What tense 
is the verb in here? 489. 

Why is this tense used ? 489. 

“ I have read Virgil many times.” Why 
is the perfect tense used here ? 489. 

What do both the perfect and imperfect 
denote ? 490. 

How does the former denote it ? 490. 

How does the latter ? 490. 

Do we say, “ Philosophers made, 9 * or 
“ have made, great discoveries in the pres¬ 
ent century ?” Why? 490. 

Which tense do we use in speaking o* 
the last century ? 490. Give an example. 
490. 

“ I have this week read the king’s proc 
lamation.” “ I have heard great new* 
this morning.” Which are the vefbs used 
in these' two sentences? 490. 


(1.) Lively. 

* Set question to 182. 


(2.) Descriptions, or tell mg what has been done, 
t Finished, or complete. 






TENSES. PARTICIPLES. 67 

ib this week, and to-day; and still there remains a part of this rear, week and 
day, whereof I speak." 

In gtoera), the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action 
is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author 
or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago j but 
if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot* be used. We mav 
say, 44 Cicero has written orations j” but we cannot say, ** Cicero has written 
poems j* because the orations aiem being, but the poems are tost. Shaking 
ef priest* n general, we may say, 44 They hate, in all ages, claimed great 
powers because the general oner of die priesthood still exists : but fi we 
speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now 
exist, we cannot use this tense. VJ e cannot sav, “ The Druid priests hare 
claimed great powers / but must sav, Tae Druid priests claimed great pow¬ 
ers j” because that order is now totally extinct. 

491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place 
at some past time mentioned : as, •*' I had finished my letter 
before my father returned.” 

492. The first future tense expresses what will take place; 
ns, “ John will come.” 

493. The second future expresses what will have taken 
place, at or before some future time mentioned; as, “ I shall 
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts.” 

494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six 
variations, namely—the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
the pluperfect, and the first anu second future tenses. 


XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 

495. In the phrase, u I found a man laboring in the field/' the word labor¬ 
ing si»ows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. When 1 
say, *• The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is joined to the 
noun man. to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 

496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different parts 
of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking of, we will caii such words 
a* laboring, participles. 

What do they denote ? When did these 
things occur ? 490. 

To what may the perfect tense in gen¬ 
eral be applied ? What exception is men¬ 
tioned ? 490—1. 

Do we suv, “ Cicero wrote,” or “ has 
written, orations ?” “ Cicero wrote ,” or 
44 has written, poems ?” Why ? 490—1. 

In speaking of priests, in general, why 
do we say, 44 They have in ail ages 
claimed zreat powers.” 490—1. 

Can we say, “ The Druid priests hare 
claimed jTeat powers” ? What should we 
sav ? Why ? 490—1. 

What is the meaning of pluperfect ? 

186. 

What does the pluperfect tense ex¬ 
press ? 491. Give an example. 491. 

Meaning of future ? 177. 

What does the first future express ? 


Give an example. 492. Why culled first 
future ?* 

What does the second future express ? 
Give an example. 493. 

How many tenses are there in all, and 
what are they : 494. 

In what mood is 44 Be runs'’ ? Why ? 
452. 44 Does he ran ?” Why ? 452. 44 I 
may run*’ ? Why ? 453. 44 r-honiu I have 
studied?” Why? 453. 44 If be accept”? 
Why? 456. 4 * If he accepts” ? \S bv 3 

456. 44 To sing” ? Why ? 479. 

la what tense is 44 He siazs” ? Whv ? 
4-2. 44 Did he sin? ?" Why ? 487. 44 He 
baa read”.? 4 88. Why? 44 Had he writ¬ 
ten”? 491. Why? 44 .-nail he go?'* 
“ 1 shall have gone” ? Why? 493. 

XL. What parts of speech does loiter 
in.g resemble ? Give an example. 495. 

What is the meaning of participle ? 496 


•See to 191. 






G3 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


497. All participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from labor comes labor¬ 
ing ; from beat, beating; rejoice, rejoicing, &c. : hence, 

493. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and 

partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

499. When I say, “ John is writing,” the participle writing shows what 
John is now doing 1 , but has not finished 5 writing, then, may be called a pres¬ 
ent participle : hence, 

500. The present participle expresses what is now taking 
place, but not finished. 

501— 1. This participle always ends in ing ; as, sinning, fighting, weeping, 
loving, &<c. There are many words of this termination, which are not parti¬ 
ciples ; as, morning, evening which are nouns; uninteresting, unsatisfying, 
winch are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed from verbs will 
furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other 
words of the same termination; as, for instance, uninteresting, we know, is not* 
a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterest, from which to form it. 

501. “ The letter is written.” Here the participle written show’s that the 
act of writing is past and finished 5 it may then be called a perfect participle ; 
hence, 

592. The perfect participle expresses what is past and fin 
ished. 

502— 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense 
with having ; thus, having written, having sung, &e. Here written and sung 
are perfect participles. 

503. “John, having written his letter, sealed it.” Here you doubtless per 
ceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing ; also, that the 
participle is composed of two words, having and written ; it may then be call 
ed a compound participle, and because it denotes also an action past and finish 
ed, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence, 

504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took 
place before something else mentioned. 

501—1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having 
before the perfect participle of any verb ; as, having fought, having ciphered. 


XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 

505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you know 
because it makes sense joined with having', as, having struck. 


From what are all participles derived? 
40.'. Give an example. 407. 

What is a participle ? 498. 

When l say, “John is writing,” what 
dons writing fdiovv ? 499. 

What, then, may it bo called ? 499. 

What, then, is a present participlo ? 
500. 

What does this participle always end 
in ? 509—1. Give an example. 500—1. 

Are all words ending in ing participles ? 
Give an example of nouns of this termi¬ 
nation ? of adjectives ? 500—1. 

How, then, can the participle he dis¬ 
tinguished ? Give an example. 500—1. 

The letter is written.” What does 
tho participle written, show here ? What, 
then, may it be'called ? 501. 

. What is a perfect participle ? 502. 

How may this participle always be 
Known ? Give an example. 502—1. 


Having written, having sung. Which 
are the perfect participles here ? 502. 

“ John, having written his letter, seal¬ 
ed it.” Which took place first, the 
writing or sealing ? 503. 

Of what is this participlo composed i 
503. 

What, then, may it he called ? 503. 

What does having written denote in ref¬ 
erence to time and action? 503. 

What may it thence be called ? 503. 

What does a compound perfect parti¬ 
ciple express ? 504. 

How is this participle formed ? 504. 
Give an example. 504. 

Xl.T. Striking, struck, having struck. 
Here are three different participles : can 
you tell which is the present? VVhv ? 
500. Perfect ? Why ? 502. Compound 
perfect. ? Why ? 503. 

What kind of a participlo is struck 1 
505. How do you know this? 505. 



VERBS. 


CD 


606. Is, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to be; as, “ I am, 
you are, he is now, by joining is with struck, we can form the passive verb 
is struck ; “John strikes Joseph'’ is active ; but “Joseph is struck by John’' 
is passive. 

507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the 
same : hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a 
different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes 
find, contributes not a little to the variety and haritiony of the language. 

508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you will discover that 
it has, in all, ten variations : viz. am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, be, and 
being. Every passive verb must be composed of ohe of these ten variations, 
and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. Thus, taking was, and 
joining it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, beaten, we form 
the passive verb was beaten, to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, 
we have the phrase, “ William w as beaten.” 

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb aWays 
retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb to be has, be 
fore it is incorporated with the participle ; thus, “He has been” is the indica 
five perfect, third person singular ; then, “ He has been rejected,” is likewise 
the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, dierefore, be 
difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person of any passive verb, if you 
are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. 

From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule : 

510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect 
participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be. 

XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 

511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the 
principal verbs are conjugated. 

512. The auxiliary verbs are may , can , must , might, coula y 
would, should , and shall. The following are sometimes aux¬ 
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do , be , have , and will. 

51"3. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that 
tense is called a compound one; and the tense formed by the principal verb 
alone is called a simple tense. 


XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

j 514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or 
by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as, “ Who 
comes here ?” 


Of what verb is the verb is a varia- 
i lion ? 506. 

Will you form a passive verb with is 
and struck ? 506. 

“ John strikes Joseph.” How may the 
sense of this sentenco be expressed by a 
passive verb ? 506. 

What advantage does the use of the 
passive verb often afford us ? 507. 

To what does it contribute ? 507. 

How many variations has the verb to 
be iu all ? 508. What are they ? 508. 

What will always composo one part of 
& passive verb ? 508. What the other 
part ? 508. 


What fact is mentioned as worthy of 

notice r 509. 

What mood, tense, number, and per¬ 
son is “ He 1ms been”? 509. Is “ Ho has 
been rejected” ? 509. 

What will make the mood, tense, &c 
of passive verbs familiar ? 509. 

How are all passive verbs formed? 510 

XLIL^ What is the meaning of auxil 
iaryl Hfl?. 

What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 

Will you name them ? 512. 

What verbs are used both as auxiliary 
and principal verbs ? 512. 

XLIII. What is the sign of the indica¬ 
tive mood ? 514. Give un example. 514 







70 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries 
?n ay, can, must, might , could , ivould , and should; as, “ I 
could love,” &-c. 

51(5. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the 
conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest; as, 
“ Unless he repent,” &/C. 

517. The infinitive mood has usually forjts sign the word 
*o as, to sing . 

518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its 
always being in the second person, and by its agreement 
with thou, or ye, or you; as, “ Depart thou,” &c. 


XL1V. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of 
the verb ; as, weep, remain , &c.; excepting the occasional 
use of do ; as, “ I do learn.” 

520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, ex¬ 
cept did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is 
not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that 
it is in the imperfect; as, “ I fought.” 

521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as, 
have loved. 

522. The pluperfect has for its sign had; as, had loved. 

523. The first future has for its sign shall or will; as, 
shall or will love. 

524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will 
have; as, shall have loved , or will have loved. 

525. The indicative moocf has six tenses. 

520. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 

527. The potential mood has four tenses. 

528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 

529. The imperative mood has one tense. 


What is the sign of tho potential mood ? 
515. Give an example. 515. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood? 516. Give an example. 516. 
What isuhe sign of the infinitive mood ? 

517. Give an example. 517. 

What is the sign of the imperative ? 

518. Give an example. 518. 

XJjI V. What is the sign of the pres¬ 
ent indicative ? 519. Give an example. 

519. 

Sign of the imperfect ? 520. Give an 
example. 520. 


Sign of the perfect? 521. Give an ex¬ 
ample. 521. 

Sign of the pluperfect ? 522. Give an 

example. 522. 

Sign of the first future ? 523. Give an 
example. 523. 

Sign of the second future ? 524. Giv< 
an example. 524. 

How many tenses has tho indicative 

mood ? 525. 

How many the subjunctive ? 526. 
How many the potential ? 527. 

How many tho infinitive ? 528. 

How many the imperative ! 529. 





VERBS. 

f 



XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 


530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading 1 , you readily under¬ 
stand what 1 mean by voice; but in grammar, its application is somewhat pe¬ 
culiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive nature 
of verbs. 

531. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combina¬ 
tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, mood3 
and tenses. 

532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the 
active voice, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 

533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im¬ 
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti¬ 
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, 
or d only when the verb ends in e; as, 

Pres. Tense . Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favor. I favored. Favored. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and 
perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular 
verb ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I am. I was. Been. 

535. The regular verb love , and the irregular verb to be , 
are conjugated as follows:— 


CONJUGATION. 

TO LOVE and TO BE. 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTED. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


PRESENT TENSE. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 
Singular. 

1 Pei’S. 1 love. 

2 Pers. You love. 

3 Pers. He loves. 

Plural. 

1 Pers. We love. 

2 Pers. You love. 

3 Pers. They love. 


" PASSIVE VOICE. 
Singular. 

1 Pers. I am loved. 

2 Pei’s. You are loved. 

3 Pers. He is loved. 

Plural. 

1 Pers. We are loved. 

2 Pers. You are loved. 

3 Pers. They are loved. 


NEUTER. 

Singular. 

1 Pers. 1 am. 

2 Pers. You are. 

3 Pers. He is. 

Plural. 

1 Pers. We are. 

2 Pers. You are. 

3 Pers. They arc. 


XLV. Whatdocs voice mean in gram¬ 
mar? 530. 

51 caning of conjugation t 217. 

What is the conjugation of an active 
▼erb styled ? 532. 

What lire conjugation of a passive 
verb l 532. 


When are verbs called regular ? 533 
Give an cxamplo. 533. 

Will you repeat after me the present 
tense, and name the imperfect tense and 
perfect participle, of the verbs favor ? 
love. ? 533. 

When is a voro called irregular ? 534, 
Give an example. 534, 




72 


ENGLISH 8KAMMAR. 


; 






IMPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular 

1. 

I loved. 

1. 

I was loved. 

I. 

I was. 

2. 

You loved. 

2. 

You were loved. 

2. 

You were. 

3. 

He loved. 

3. 

He was loved. 

3. 

He was. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 

1. 

We loved. 

1 

We were loved. 

1. 

We were. 

2. 

You loved. 

2. 

Vou w ere loved. 

2. 

You wrere. 

3. 

They loved. 

3. 

They were loved. 

3. 

They were. 



PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 

1. 

I have loved. 

1. 

I have been loved. 

1. 

I have been. 

2. 

You have loved. 

2. 

You have been loved. 

2. 

You have been. 

3. 

He has loved. 

3. 

He has been loved. 

3. 

He has been. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 

1. 

We have loved. 

1. 

We have been loved. 

1. 

We have been. 

2. 

You have loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

2. 

You have been. 

3. 

They have loved. 

3. 

They have been loved. 

3. 

They have been 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 

1. 

I had love£ 

I. 

I had been loved. 

1. 

I had been. 

2. 

You had loved. 

2. 

You had been loved. 

2. 

You had been. 

3. 

He had loved. 

3. 

He had been loved. 

3. 

He had been. 


Plural. * 


Plural. 


Plural . 

1. 

We had loved 

1 . 

We had been loved. 

1 . 

We had been. 

2. 

You had loved. 

2. 

You had been loved. 

2. 

You had been 

3. 

They had loved. 

3. 

They had been loved. 

3. 

They had been. 


FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 

I. 

I shall or will love. 

1 . 

I shall or will be lov¬ 

1 . 

I shall or will he. 

2 

You shall or will love. 


ed. 

2. 

Yon shall or will be 

3 

He shall or will love. 

2. 

You shad or w ill be 

3. 

He shall or will oe. 


- 


loved. 





3. 

He shall or will be 






loved. 




Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 

1 . 

We shall or will love. 

1 . 

We shall or will be 

1 . 

We shall or will be. 

2. 

You shall or will love. 


loved. 

2. 

You shall or will be. 

3 

They shall or will 

tf> 

You shall or will be 

3! 

They shall or will be 


love. 


loved. 





3. 

They shall or will he 






loved. 




SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 

3. He wiJl have loved. 


Plural. 

1. We shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 

3. They will have loved. 


Singular. 

1. I shall have been lov- 1 

ed. 2. 

2. You will have been 3. 

loved. 

3. He will have been 

loved. 

Plural. 

1. We shall have been 1. 

loved. 2. 

2. You will have been 3. 

loved. 

3. They will have been 

loved. 


Singular. 

I shall have been. 
You will have been. 
He will have been. 


Plural. 

We shall have been. 
You will have been. 
They will have been 


Will you conjugate love in tlie present perfect l first future t second future- 
tense, active voice, indicative mood? present passive? imperfect? perfecti 
535 In the imperfect ? perfect? plu- pluperfoct? first future ? second future i 



TENSES 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 


Singular. 

1. I may or can love. 

2. You mayor can love. 

3. He may or can love. 

Plural. 

1. We may or can love. 

2. You may or can love. 

3. They may or can 

love. 


Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should love. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could. 

would, or should 
love. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
love. 

Singular. 

1. I may or can have 

loved. 

2. You may or can have 

loved. 

3. He may or can have 

loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may or can have 

loverf. 

2. You may or can have 

loved. 

3. They may or can 

have loved. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I may or can he lov¬ 

ed. 

2. You may or can be 

loved. 

3. He may or can be 

.’oved. 

Plural. 

1. We may or can be 

loved. 

2. You may or can be 

loved. 

3. They may or can be 

loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. Imight, could, would, 

or should be loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should bo 
loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. I may or can have 

been loved. 

2. You may or can have 

been loved. 

3. He may or can have 

been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may or can have 

been loved. 

2. You may or can have 

been loved. 

3. They may or can 

have been loved. 


Singular. 

1 . I may or can be. 

2. You may or can be 

3. He may or can be. 


Plural. 

1. We may or can be. 

2. Y ou may or can be. 

3. They may or can be- 


Singular. 

1. 1 might, could, would, 

or should be. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

3. He might, eould, 

would, or should 
be. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
be. 

b. 

Singular. 

1. I may or can have 

'been. 

2. You may or can have 

been. 

3. He may or can have 

been. 

Plural. 

1. We may o/vcan have 

been. 

2. You may or can have 

been. 

3. They may or can have 

been. 


Wi.l you conjugate the verli to be, or 
am, i*» the present? the imperfect ? per¬ 
fect? pluperfect? first future? second 
future r 

Will you name the first person singu¬ 
lar, ol the present indicative, active and 
passive, of love, and the first person sin¬ 
gula? of the verb to be? 


The second person in like manner? the 
third ? the first person plural ? second 
person plural? third? first person singu¬ 
lar, imperfect? second person? third? 
first person plural ? second person plural-? 
third ? first person singular, perfect? 
second person? third? first portion plu¬ 
ral ? second? third? 





74 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

1. f might, could, would, 
or should have 
loved. 

2 You might, could, 
would, or should 
have loved. 

3. He might, 
would, cr 
have loved. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could. 

would, or should 
have loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 

3. They might, could. 

would, or should 
have loved. 


could, 

should 


PLUPERFECT tense. 

Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should have 
been loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. He might, could. 

would, or should 
have been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We might, could. 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. They might, could. 

would, o?' should 
have been loved. 


Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should have 
been. 

2. You might, could. 

would, cr should 
have been. 

3. He might, could. 

would, or should", 
have been. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
have been. 

2. You mightj^could. 

would, or should 
have been. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
have been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


PRESENT TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. If I love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he loves. 

Plural. 

1. If wc love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 


Singular. 
!. If I love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 


Singular. 

1. If I loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 

Plural. 

1. If wc loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved* 


Common Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I am loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we are loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If they are loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 
Singular. 

1. If 1 be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

Plural. 

J. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 

I IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Common Form. 

Singular. 

1. Tf I was loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

'2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 


Singular 

1. If I am. 

2. If you are. 

3. If he is. 

Plural. 

1. If we are. 

2. If you are. 

3. If they are. 


Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 

Plural. 

1. Tf we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 


Singular. 

1. If 1 was. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he was. 

Plural 

1. If wc were. 

2. If you were* 

3. If they were* 



Will you conjugate love in like man¬ 
ner, through each person ami voico of 
the pluperfect? first and second futures? 
present potential? imperfect? perfect? 
pluperfect. ? present subjunctive, com¬ 
mon form? subjunctive form? imperfect, 
common form?' subjunctive form? per¬ 
fect.'' pluperfect? first and second fu¬ 
tures 


Will you conjugate love in the presont 
indicative active ? imperfect ? perfect: 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 
present passive imperfect ? perfect ? 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? 
present indicative of to be ? imperfect: 
perfect? pluporfect? first and second fu¬ 
tures? 






TENSES. 


75 


Singular 
J. If I loved. 

2. If 3 0 a loved. 

3. If he loved. 

Plural. \ 
J. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 


Subjunctive Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 


Singular, 

1. If I were 

2. If 3 du were. 

3. If he were. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2 . If you were. 

3. If they were 


The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. 


Singular. 

1. If I have loved. 

2. If 3 'ou have loved. 

3. If he has loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3 . If thc 3 ’ have loved. 


PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. If I have been loved. 

2. If 3 ’ou have been 

loved. 

3 If he has been loved. 
Plural. 

1 . If we have been 

loved. 

2 . If 3-0U have been 

loved. 

3. If they have been 

loved. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 


Singular. 

1. If I had loved. 

2 . If N'ou had loved. 

3. If lie had loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we liad loved 

2. If 3011 had loved 

3. If they had loved. 


PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1 . If I had been loved. 1 . 

2 . I f you had been loved. 2 . 

3. If iie had been loved. 3. 

Plural. 

1. If we had been loved. I. 

2. If you had been lov- 2. 

ed. 3. 

'3. If they had been loved. 


FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. If I shall or will love. 

2. If 30 U shall or will 

love. 

3. If lie shall or will love. 


Singular. 

1. If I shaTl or will be 1. 

loved. 2 . 

2. If you shall or will be 

loved. 3. 

3. If lie shall or will be 

loved. 


Singular. 

If I have been. 

If you have been 
If he has been. 

Plural. 

If we have been. 
If you have been 
If (hey have been, 


Singular. 

If I had been. 

If you had beem 
If lie had been. 
Plural. 

If we had been. 
If you had been. 
If they had been* 


- Singular. 

If I shall or will be. 

If you shall or will 
be. 

If he shall or will be. 


Will you conjugate love through each 
person of the present indicative active f 
passive? the neuter verb to be? also in 
the imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first 
and second futures? present potential? 
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? present 
subjunctive, in both forms? perfect? 
pluperfect? first and second futures ? 

What is the present infinitive active of 
love! present passive? present of to bel 
perfect active of love ? perfect passive ? 
perfect of to lei present, participle activo 
of love 1 present passive ? present of to 
bel perfect of love1 perfect of to bel 
compound perfect of lore, in the active ? 
in the passive of to be 1 

I 11 what voice and fnood is “ I love” ? 
“ They love” ? “ They ai 0 loved” ? “ Are 
they loved ?” “ I do love” ? What is the 
force of do 1 In what voice and mood is 
“ The man loved” ? “ He has loved” ? 


“He has been loved”? “IIus he >sen 
loved ?” “ Sho had loved” ? “ She had 
been loved”? “ We shall love”? ‘ We 
shall lie loved” ? “ Shall I have men 
loved ?” May I love ?” “ May I he 
loved?” “ She may have loved”? 
may have been loved”? “ If I Ip e ,J ? 
“ If iie be loved” ? “ If he is loved”** 1 *'If 
I love”? “Ifl were loved”? “II I was 
loved” ? 

In what tenso is “ They love” ? *“ Ye 
are loved” ? “ She did love” ? “ We were 
loved” ? “They shall lovo” ? “They 
shall be loved” ? “ I may bo loved” ? 
“If she has been loved”? 

In what numoer and person is “I 
love” ? “ We love”? “ Ho does love” ? 
“ The man did love” ? “ The men were 
loved”? “ If lie love”? “If I was”? 
“ If I wore”? “ If ye have been” ? “ 1/ 
yo have loved”? “ You may bo love-’ 



76 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


Plural. 

1. If we shall or \tfill 

love. 

2. If you shall or will 

love. 

3. If they shall or will 

Jove. 


Plural. 

1. If we shall or will be 

loved. 

2. If you shall or \yill be 

loved. 

3. If they shall or will 

be loved. 


Plural. 

1. If we shall or will be. 

2. If you shall or will 

be. 

3. If they shall or will 

be. 


SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 


Singular. - 

1. If I shall have loved. 

2. If you shall have lov¬ 

ed. 

3. If he shall have loved. 


Plural. 

1. If we shall iiave lov¬ 

ed. 

2. If you shall have lov¬ 

ed. 

3. If thev shall have 

loved. 


Singular. 

1. If I shall have been 

loved. 

2. If you shall have beon 

loved. _ 

3. If he shall have been 

loved. > 

Plural. 

1. If we shall have been 

loved. 

2. If you shall have been 

loved. 

3. If they shall have 
. been loved. 


Singular. 

1. If I shall have been. 

2. If you shall have 

been. 

3. If he shall have been. 


Plural. 

1. If we shall have been. 

2. If you shall have 

been. 

3 If they shall have 
been. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Singular. 

2. Love you, or do you 
love. 

Plural. 

2. Love you, or do you 
love. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

2. Be you loved, or do 
you be loved. 
Plural. 

2. Be you loved, or do 
you be loved. 


Singular. 

2. Be you, or do you be. 
Plural. 

2. Be you, or do you be. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Pres. To love. Pres. To be loved. , Pres. To be. 

Perf To have loved. Perf. To have been lov- Perf. To have been. 

od. 

PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. Loving - . 
Perf. Loved. 
Compound Perf. 
jng - loved. 


Pres. Being - loved. 

Perf. Loved. 

Hav- Covtpound Perf. Hav¬ 
ing been loved. 


Pres. Being. 
Perf Been. 
Compound Perf. 
ing been. 


Hav- 


conju 


536. For (lie benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in 
ijugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can tak 


the 
take it 


separately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by 
substituting fhou for you, in the foregoing conjugation. 


Is love, as, “ They love,” a regular or 
irregular verb ? why? 533. active or pas¬ 
sive ? 439. What mood is it in? why? 
452. tense? why? 43‘i. number? person ? 
What does lore. agree with ? Rule VII. 

Ts are , as, “They are,” a regular or 
irregular verb? why? 534. passive or 
neuter? why? 450. What mood is it in? 
why? 452. tense? why? 432. number? 
person? Rule for its agreement? VII. 

What is the present imperative of love ? 
present infinitive? 

What mood and tense is “ Love you”? 
is To have been lovyd” ? 

Will you conjugate /earn in the present 
indicative active? passive? perfect act¬ 
ive? perfect passive? present potential 
’ five ? passive ? imperfect active ? pas¬ 


sive? imperative present active? passive? 
perfect infinitive active? passive ? present 
subjunctive active in both forms? passive, 
perfect infinitive? future active? passive? 

What kind of verb (that is, regular or 
irregular), what voice, mood, tense, num¬ 
ber, and person is “ I sing” ? “ We are 
formed”? “He is”? “You are deter¬ 
mined”? “It rains”? “It. has happen¬ 
ed” ? “The man was respected” ? “Tho 
hoys did study”? “ If ho improve”? “ Un¬ 
less lie repent” ? “Although she be dis¬ 
appointed”? “ He may depart” ? “ l>n- 
part now”? “To love”? “To sing”? 
“To he sung” ? “ To rejoice” ? “ To have 
wept” ? “ To have been seen” f “ To have 
been found”? 




TENSES. 


77 


Synopsis with Thou. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Thou art. 
Thou wast. 


Pres. Thou lovcst. 
Imp. Thou loved.st. 
Perl. Thou hast loved. 
Plup. Thou 1 radst lov 
ed. 

1 Fat. Thou slialt or 

- wilt love. 

2 Fat. Thou wilt have 

loved. 


Thou art loved. 

Thou wast loved. 

Thou hast been loved. 
Thou hadst been loved. 

Thou shall or wilt be 
loved. 

Thou wilt have been 
loved. 


Thou hast been. 

Thou hadst been. 

Thou shall or wilt be. 

Thou wilt have Veen. 


537. 

Pres. Thou mayst or 
canst love. 

Imp. Thou mightst, 
couldst, wbuldst or 
shouldst love. 

Per/. Thou mayst or 
canst have loved. 

Flap. Thou mightst, 
couldst, wouldst, or 
shouldst liave loved. 


POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Thou mayst or canst be 
loved. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst 
be loved. 

Thou mayst or canst 
have been loved. 

Thou inightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst 
have been loved. 


Thou mayst or canst be. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst 
be. 

Thou mayst or canst 
have been. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst 
have been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


538 . 

Pres. If thou lovcst. 
Imp. If thou lovedst. 

539 . 

Pres. If thou love. 
Imp. If thou loved. 

540 . 


Common Form. 

If thou art loved. 

If thou wast loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 

If thou be loved. 

If thou wert loved. 

Common Form. 


If thou art. 
If thou wast. 


If thou be. 

If thou wert. 


Per/. If thou hast loved. If thou hast been loved. If thou hast been. 

Plup. If thou hadst lov- If thou hadst been loved. If thou hadst been. 


ed. 


1 Put. If thou slialt or If thou shalt or wilt be If tiiou slialt or wilt be. 


wil* love. iu>™- 

2 Fut. If thou shalt have If thou shalt have been If thou shalt have been. 


loved 


loved. 


loved. 


I. 


541. 

Singular. 
Do I love ? 

Do you love ? 
Does he love ? 

Plural. 
Do we love ? 
Do you love ? 
Do they love ? 


Interrogative Form. 
INDICATIVE PRESENT. 


1 . 


Singular. 

Am l loved ? 

Are you loved ? 

3. Is he loved ? 

Plural. 

1. Arc wo loved ? 

2. A re you loved ? 

i/o ui«y iu\c « 3. Are tney loved? -- —~ _ 

612. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that tAe 
tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones 
of the indicative, except thc\ following, namely, the presen t a nd imported 


Singular. 

1. Am I ? 

2. Are you? 

3. Is he ? 

Plural. 

1. A re we ? 

2. Aro you ? 

3. Are they ? 


Will you give the synopsis o Cloor. joined 
with thou through the indicative active ? 
passive? Neuter verb to be? 

Will vou name the synopsis of learn in 
the firsi pcrsoi in the active voice, through 
each mood and tense? Will you repeat 
tue two tenses of the infmitivo and the 
tnrec participles? Synopsis of honor, in 

7 * 


like manner through the passive? also (ho 
synopsis of the verb to be ? (> ivo the synop¬ 
sis of desire in the active, like love ; in tee 
passive; verb to be; first person plural 
active; passive ; to be ; third person act 
ive ; passive ; to be. 

What mood does the subjunctive resem¬ 
ble in its ter.scs ? 512. 


e 

il 






78 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


of the verb to be ; the present and imperfect of the passive; the present and 
the second future active. The last, however, correspond* in termination, but 
not in formation. Among 1 the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the 
conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, when 
no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly understood ; as, 
“ Were I to go, he would not follow Had he known me, he would have 
treated me differently that is, “ if 1 were to go,” and “ If he had known. 
Examples of this description are conjugated as follows; 


SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 


5413 . 


IMRERFECT 


Singular. 

Were I. 
Were you. 
Were he. 


PLUPERFECT 

Singular. 

1. Had I loved. 

2. Had you loved. 

3. Had he loved. 


TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. Were we. 

2. Were you. 

3. Were they. 

TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. Had we lovedi 

2. Had you loved. 

3. Had they loved. 


544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in st ; 
as, “Thou hast,” “ Thou wast,” *fcc. This form is still retained by that re¬ 
spectable class of persons denominated (2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.) 
Scriptures. (3.) 

545. Eth, for the termination of the inird person singular, obtained (4.) very 
generally-till within a recent (5.) period, especially on grave (6.) and dioactic (7.) 
subjects*; as, “ He that hath ears to hear, let him hear “ Simple multiplica¬ 
tion teachrth to repeat,” &c. But the custom of the present day is decid¬ 
edly (8.) against the usage. (9.) 

?>46. The Scriptures abound (10.) with instances of the use of the pronoun 
ye for you ; as, “ Ye are the salt of the earth •” but it is scarcely to be met 
with in any standard works of modem date. 

547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb. 


Singular. 

1. T love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He loveth or loves 


INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

Singular. Singular. 

1. I am loved. 1. T am. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art. 

3. He is loved. 3. He is. 


What exceptions ? 54*2. 

How does the second future differ? 542. 

Will you explain the difference? 542. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood? 516. Is it always expressed ? 542. 
Give an example. 542. Will you supply 
the conjunction ? 

Will you conjugate the verb to be in the 
subjunctive mood, imperfect tense, without 
its usual sign ? In like manner conjugate 
lure in the pluperfect. 

Will you conjugate love in the present 
active, interrogative form? passive? neu¬ 
ter verb to be ? 

In what voice, mood, tense, number 
.and person is “ l)u I study?” “ Did she 
study?” “ Were they dismissed?” “Are 
we ?” 

In what did the second person singular 
of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an 
example. 544. 

Meaning of formerly? 544. 


By whom is this termination still re¬ 
tained? 544. In what, writings ? 544. 
Meaning of Sacred Scriptures ? 544. 
What form of the third person singular 
obtained till recently? 545. Give an ex¬ 
ample. 545. 

Meaning of obtained1 545. Of recent ? 
545. 

On what subjects was the termination 
et.h used in writing ? 545. 

Meaning of grave ? of didactic? 545. 

In what writing#do we find ye used for 

yon? 546. 

Is it common in modern works ? 546. 
Will you conjugate love in the present 
active, according to the ancient usage? 
547. passive ? neuter verb to be? 

In what number and person is “ He 
hath”? “He hates”? “Thou lovest”? 
“Thou hast”? “He learneth” ? “Ye 
learn”? He rejoiceth” ? “Thou art re¬ 
joiced”? “ Thou art”? “He weepeth”? 


* Excepting art. 

Some time ago. (2.) Called. (3.) The Ribte. (4.) Prevailed. (5.) Lite. (6.) Serious. 
(7.) Abounding in precepts, or instructive. (8.) Positively. (3.) t'»«. (10.) H«v« n>tny. 





VERBS. 


79 


Plural. Plural. Plural 

\ We love. 1. We are loved. 1. We are 

2 Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or vou arc. 

3 They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 

548. [HTFor a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, thelearne. 
is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which profess to fur- 
ni»h him with a sure and infaliihie guide to the true and proper use of the 
English language. 


RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number and 

person. 


H.TJLE TTII. 

A v*rb must agree with its nominative case in number 

and person. 

RULE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

“ William was admired for his prudence.” 

549. William is a proper noun, of the third person, sin¬ 
gular number, masculine gender, and in the nominative 
case to teas admired , agreeably to Rule VI. 

, Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to 
admire —“ Pres, admire ; Imp. admired ; Perf. part, admired. 1. I 
was admired ; 2. You were admired ; 3. He or William was ad¬ 
mired”—made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with William , 
according to Rule VII. 

For is a preposition. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the THIRD person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and agrees with William , accord¬ 
ing to Rule V.—“.Vow. he ; Poss. his”—made in the possessive 
case, and governed by prudence, hv Rule I. 

Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by 
for , by Rule X. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 


“ John was applauded for his elo¬ 
quence.” 

“ The king was crowned at West¬ 
minster Abbey.” . 

“ Thomas has been esteemed.” 

“ The business will be regulated.” 


“ The girl was ridiculed by her 
companions.” 

“ Susan was respected for her vir- 
-tuous conduct. 

“ James will be rewarded by his 
instrueter.” 


“Addition teacheth” 5 “Ho that hath 
corn” ? “ He that ainneth” ? “ Thou 

lovedst” ? “Thou uiightst, eouhlst, 
wouldst, or shouldst have lamented”? 

What is the rule for the agreement of 
the verb? role for the nominative? rule 
hv which verbs govern the objective ease? 

“ William was admired for his pru¬ 
dence.” Will you jwrse Wdliam 1 549. 


was admired ? 549. for ? 549. his 1 549. 
■prud/mr.e 1 549. 

What is a passive verb ? 444. How 
formed? 5J0. Why is admired regular? 
533. 

Why is for a preposition ? 246. Why 
is his a pronoun? 

Will you now parse the remaining ox 
Cretans ? 




80 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


2. 

“ We may be esteemed.” “ Justice may have been stayed.’ 

“ He might have been promoted.” “ The task must be performed.” 

“ William would have been de- “ We should not (1.) be easily (1.) 
throned.” disheartened in a good cause.” 

u If he be learned 
550. If is a copulative conjunction. 

Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn 
— “ Pres, learn ; Imper. learned ; Perf. part , learned. I. If I be 
learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If lie be learned”—made in 

the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, SUBJUNCTIVE FORM, PRESENT TENSE, 

third person, singular number, and agrees with he, accord¬ 
ing to Rule VII. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 


“ If John be rewarded.” 

“ If I arn noticed.” 

“ Unless he be punished.” 

“ Although they are respected.” 

“ Columbus discovered America.” 

“ America was discovered by Co¬ 
lumbus.” 

“ John wounded his brother.” 

“ John’s brother was wounded by 
him.” 

“ An obedient son is deservedly 
respected by bis friends.” 

“ An idle boy will be punished.” 

“ Without knowledge, a man is 
commonly (1.) despised.” 


“ The boy who visited me in Sep¬ 
tember died in the city of Bos¬ 
ton.” 

“ The man whom 1 found perished 
in a storm of snow.” 

" I found(2.) John and William (3.) 
in the garden with their father 
and mother. (3.) 


“ Although you will be disap¬ 
pointed.” 

“ If the man had been elected.” 

“ Except he repent.” 

“ Susan assisted the little girl.” 

“ The little girl was assisted by 
Susan.” 

“ Pain follows pleasure.” 

“ Pleasure is followed by pain.” 


“ Unless great labor had been be¬ 
stowed on William, lie would 
have disappointed the expec¬ 
tations of his parents.” 

“ lie will not (1.) mind without 
corpora^punishment.” 

“ They that seek knowledge will 
find it.” 

“ That lion which was exhibited 
in this town has been killed 
by his keeper.” 

“ I have assisted him and his sister 
in many dillicultics, to no (4.) 
purpose.” 


XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or 
cd to the present tense ; as, 


u If he be learned.” Will you parse ij'l 
£350. be learned ? 550. Why in the sub¬ 
junctive mood? 456. 


Why in the subjunctivo form ? 463. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises 
in theso lessons ? 


(1.) Adverb (2.) Irregular verb. (3.) For Willia* and mother apply Rule XI (4.) Adjective 






IRREGULAR VERBS 


81 


Pres, tense. 
Go, 
Begin, 


Imperf. tense. 
Went, 
Began, 


Pcrf. Participle 
Gone. 
Begun. 


LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


Those marked r admit likewise a regular form. 


Present. 


Irr*perfect. 

Per/, or Pass. Part. 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf. or Pass. Pa>t. 

Abide, 


abode, 

abode. 

Hang, 

hung, r. 

hung. r. 

Am, 


was, 

been. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Arise, 


arose, 

arisen. 

Hew, 

.. hewed, 

hewn. r. 

Awake, 


awoke, r. 

awaked. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden, hid. 

Sear, to 
Jortfi, 

bring \ 

hare, 

born. 

HU, 

Hold, 

hit, 

held, 

hit 

held. 

Bear, to carry , 

bore, 

borne. 

Hurt, 

hurl. 

hurt. 

Beat, 


beat, 

beaten, beat. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Begin, 


began. 

begun. 

Knit, 

kuit, r. 

knit, r. 

Bend, 


bent. 

bent. 

Kn >w. 

knew, 

knowu. 

Bereave, 


bereft, r. 

bereft, r. 

Hade, 

laded, 

laden. 

Beseech, 


besought. 

besought. 

Day, 

laid, 

laid. 

Bid, 


bid, bade, 

bidden, bid. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Bind, 


bound, 

bound. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Bite, 


bit, 

bitten, bit. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lenL 

Bleed, 


bled, 

bled. 

Let, 

let. 

let. 

Blow, 


blew, 

blown. 

Lie, to lit down , lav. 

bin. 

Break, 


broke, 

broken. 

Load, 

loaded, 

laden, r. 

Breed, 


bred, 

bred. 

Lose, 

lost. 

lost. 

Briug, 


brought, 

brought. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Build, 


built, 

built. 

Meet. 

met, 

met. 

Burst, 


bunt, 

burst. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown. r. 

Buy. 


bought, 

bought. 

Pav, 

Put, 

paid, 

paid. 

Cast, 


cast. 

ca*L 

♦ put, 

put. 

Catch, 


caught, r. 

caught. r. 

Read, 

read. 

rvad. 

Chide, 


chid, 

chidden; chid. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Choose, 

Cleave, to stick ) 

chose, 

regular. 

chosen. 

Rid, 

Ride, 

rid, 

rode, 

rid. i 
rode, ridden. 

w tuiherty $ 


R'i»g, 

rung, rang, 

runs. 

Cleave, to split, 

clove or cleft. 

cleft, cloven. 

Rise, 

r«,*e, 

risen. 

Cling, 


clung, 

clung. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven. 

Clothe, 


clothed, 

clad. r. 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

Come, 


came, 

conic. 

Saw. 

MW, 

sawn. r. 

Cost, 


cost, 

cost. 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

Crow, 


crew, r. 

crowed. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Creep, 


crept. 

crept. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought 

Cut, 


cut. 

cut. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

Dare, tcventirrt, durst. 

dared. 

Send, 

sent, 

■('lit. 

Dare, to 
lenity 

• 

i 

r. 

' 

Set, 

Shake, 

set, 

shook, 

set. 

shaken. 

Deal, 


dealt, r. 

dealt, r. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shaped,'hapeu r 



dug, r. 

dug. r. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven, r. 

Do, 


did. 

done. 

She-ar, 

sheared, 

shorn. 

Draw, 


drew. 

drawn. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

Drive, 


drove, 

driven. 

Shine, 

shone, V. 

shone, r. 

Drink, 


drank. 

drunk. 

Show, 

showed, 

shou n. 

nwell, 


dwelt, r. 

dwelt, r. 

Shoe, 

' shod. 

shod. 

Kat, 

Fall, 


eat or ate, 

eaten. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot. 


fell, 

fallen. 

Shi ink. 

shrunk, 

shrunk. 

Feed, 


fed, 

fed. 

Shred 

shred. 

si \ red. 

Fed, 


felt. 

felt. 

Shut, 

shut, 

«dlUt. 

Figl.t, 


fought, 

fought. 

Sing, 

sung, sans, 

sung. 

Find, 


found. 

found. 

Sink, 

sunk, sank, 

sunk. 

Flee, 


fled. 

fled. 

Sit, 

tut. 

sat. 

Hms, 


flung, 

flung. 

May, 

slew. 

slain. 

Oy, 


flew, 

flown. 

Sleep, 

•le,»t. 

slept. 

Forget, 


forgot. 

forgotten, forgot. 

Slide, 

slid, 

slidden. 

Forsake, 


forsook, 

forsaken. 

Sling, 

slunj. 

slung. 

Freeze, 


froze. 

frozen. 

Slink, 

slunk. 

slunk. 

Let, 


k (,t » 

got.# 

Slit, 

sl»L r. 

slit, or slitted. 

wild, 


g»!t, r. 

gilt. r. 

Smite, 

smote. 

smitten. 

Gird, 


grrt, r. 

giit. r. 

Sow, 

sowed. 

sown. r. 

Give, 


gave, 

given. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

iio. 


went, 

gone. 

Speed, 

sped, 

sped. 

r »rave, 


graved, 

graven, r. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

*rind, 


ground, 

ground. 

Spill, 

spilt, r. 

spilt, r. 

IT" 


grew, 

had, 

grown. 

had. 

Spin, 

spin, 

spun. 

we. 


Spit, 

spit, spat. 

->— 

spit, spitten.! 


XLVI. When is a verb called irregn- (to carry.) bid? bite? break? choose? 
ir ? 551. do? drtvk? eat? forget.? have? known? 

Will you name the present and imper- lie? (to lie down.) mow? rise? see? 
ct. tenieb, also the perfect participle of throw? loeane? write? 
o? begin? am? arise? awake? bear? 

V # Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound, forgotten, is still in good use. 

t Ridden is yearly obsolete. t Spitten it Dearly obsolete. 

424 ^ 







ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


82 


Pretend 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow or strew, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 


Imperfect Ptrf. or Pom. Part. 
split, spilt, r, 

spread, spread, 

sprung, sprang, sprung, 
stood. stood. 


stole, 

sturk, 

stung, 

stunk, 

strode,Dr strid, 
struck, 
strung, 
strove, 

•trowed or 
strewed, 

8 wore, 
swet. r. 
swelled, 
swurr., sw am, 
swuug, 


stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

stridden* 

struck or stricken. 

string. 

stmen. 

strown, strowed, 
strewed, 
sworn, 
swet. r. 
swollen, r. 
swum, 
swung. 


Present. 

Take ? 

Teacn, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

War, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

^Via, 

Wind, 

Work, 


Wring, 

Write, 


Imperfect* 

took, 

taught, 

tore, 

told, 

thought, 

throve, r. 

threw', 

thrust, 

trod, 

wared, 

wore, 

wove, 

wept, 

won, 

wound, 

wrought, 

wrung, 

wrote, 


Perf.oe Pa*. Pari 

taken. 

taught 

torn. 

told. 

thought 

thriven. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

waxen, r. 

woru. 

woven. 

wept. 

wou. 

wound. 

J wrought or 
i worked, 
wrung, 
written. 


553. We say, “ 1 have seen/’ “ I had seen,” mid “ I am seen,” using the 
participle seen instead of the verb saw : hence. 

Note VI. We should use participles, only, after have, and 
had, and the verb to be. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 


<* John has written his copy.” 

554. Has written is an irregular active-transitive verb, 
from the verb to write— 11 Pres, write ; Imperf. wrote ; Per f. part 
written. 1. I have written ; 2. You have written ; 3. He or Johv 
has written”-—found in the indicative mood, perfect tense 
third person, sinqular number, and agrees with John, b} 
Rule VII. . 

John , copy, and his are parsed as before. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

£ 


Job has struck John.” 

“ John has been struck by Job.” 

“ The men caught the thief in the 
tavern.” 

“ The thief was caught by the 
men in the tavern.” 

“ A wise son will make a glad 
father.” 

*• The act was done by William.” 


“ James found his little brother ii 
the boat.” 

“ The instructor makes goo 
pens.” 

“ The farmer ploughs the groun 
in spring.” 

“ I may spend my time in th 
country.” 


Will von correct, in accordance with 
Note VI., the following examples from 
the list above ? ^ ■ 

“ John has wrote.” 

“ Ho clone it well.” 

“ The sun has rose. ’ 

“ The sun risen yesterday in a cloud.” 
“ I see him yesterday.” 

“ He has did his task.” 

“ The birds have flow away.” 

“ The birds flown or flow.” 

“ The post is drove into the ground.” 

* He began or begun to write.” 

“ The task is bogan.” 

“ 1 had went with him.” 

,l My brother has not spoke.” 

“ The cloth is wove.” 

“ The boys run swiftly.” 

“The thief has stole my watch.” 


“ His copy was wrote well.” 

“ Ho was smote on his check.” 

“John was awoko by the noise.” 

“ My father has came.” 

“ He come yesterday.” 

“ Mary has chose the better part.” 

“ He drunk to excess.” 

“ The book was gave to me.” 

“ His friends have forsook him.” 

“ lie was not forsook by his children.’ 

“The laborer worked for me fui 
days.” 

“ He was took and bound 

u Jo)m has written hie copy.** W 
you parse has written ? 

Why is has written an irregular \px 
551. Why active? 439. Why ransnti^ 
440. 






EXERCISES. 


83 


* John is at home.” 

* Rufus rode into the country.” 

‘ The sun will shine.” 

‘ The thief was confined in jail.” 

‘ The horse ran with great vio- 

- lenoe.” 

‘If lie will assist me, I shall he 
much (1.) obliged to him.” 

■« If he be virtuous, then he will 
be happy ” 

‘ If he is happy, then 1 am con¬ 
tented.” 

‘ Had he mentioned that circum¬ 
stance, I should have avoided 
my present calamities.” 

'«Although he acknowledged his 

Thou hast benefited me.” 

Ye make no pretensions.” 

‘‘ This doctrine hath no follow¬ 
ers.” 

“ If thou love me.” 

“ If thou art more comfortable, I 
heartily rejoice.” 

“ If Thomas, who is at school, 
return in season, I will visit 
you.” 

« The boys whom I admonished 
have reformed.” 

•< The man whose life was in dan¬ 
ger returned in safety.” 


“ He abode in peace.” 

“ They would be cruel.” 

“ We may have been negligent” 

“ The boys should have been stu¬ 
dious.” 

“ William was in town.” 

faults, still he would not recom¬ 
pense me.” 

“ I will write him, lest he neglect 
my business.” 

“ Should 1 be disappointed, I shall 
despair.” 

“ Unless he repent, he will not be 
pardoned.” 

“ Were I" in your place, I would 
relieve him.” 

Dost thou hear me ?” 

“ Hath lie many advisers ?” 

“ Ye do always err.” 

l< Thou shall surely die.” 

“ If thou liadst obeyed me, thou 
wouldst not have been disap* 
pointed,” 

“ The task whicli the instrurter 
imposed was performed with 
reluctance.” 

“ The measure which he adopts 
will succeed.” 

“ I have known a little child that 
exhibited the prudence of ma¬ 
ture years.” 


XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

555. When I say, “John begins to read,” to read is a verb in the infinitive 
mood; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins: hence we say that 
it is governed by bigins. 

“lie is beginning to read.” Here, the infinitive follows the participle 
begui ling ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning. 

“ He is eager to learn.” Here, tbc infinitive follows the adjective eager; 
we therefore say that it is governed by eager. 

“He has an opportunity to learn.” Here, the infinitive, to learn, is gov 
erned by the noun opportunity . because it follows the noun. 

In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pronouns ; as, “ There is 
a fim; opportunity for him to learnhence, 

~XL VII. “John be » in.V to road.’’ In “He Inis an opportunity to learn?” 
what, mood is to read .? 555. Why? *179. What part of speech governs to learn in 
Bv what i» it governed ? 555. Why? 555. this example ? 555. Why? 5.>5. 

“ lie is beginning to read.” What gov- -“ opportunity fov him to learn.” 

erns to read in this case ? 555. What does the infinitive hero follow? 

*— v Ie is eager to learn.” What governs By what, then, is it governed ? 555. 

/ u in this case? 555. Why? 555. 

I / - - nm I ~ “““* l 

j , (1.) Adverb. 


See fr$5. 






i 


84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


ZLTJImH XXI. 

The infinitive mood may he governed by verbs , partici 
pies, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 

“ James begins to learn” 

556. To learn is a regular transitive verb —“ Pres, learn 
Imperf. learned ; Per/, part, learned”—made in the infinitivi 
mood, present tense, and governed by begins, agreeably tc 
Rule XII. 

James and begins, are parsed as before. 


exercises in 
“ George desires to learn.” 

“ He is eager to learn.” 

“ He has a desire to study.” 

“ It seems to please John.” 

“ William has corne to see us.” 

“ They arp determined to excel.” 
“ A knowledge of the rules of 


r NTAX CONTINUED. 

grammar teaches us to write 
correctly.” 

“ He should seek to obtain 
knowledge.” 

“ We may be taught to write, 
read, and spell.” 


Omission of to, the usual Sign of the Infinitive. 

“John saw the man strike (1.) “ I heard the clock strike.” 

the boy. “ The tutor bade him do it.” 

The.instructer made him sub- “ The soldiers dare not rebel.” 

„ “ ,t ” , “ M y uncle let the boys play in 

“ I hey need not proceed in such the garden.” 

b aste - “ See (2.) the blind beggar dance.” 


Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed 
by conjunctions or adverbs; as, “ The summit of a mountain 
so high as to be invisible.” 


EXAMPLES. 

“ l. he y are about (3.) to depart.” “ He desired no more (4.) than (5 ; 
“ He is wise enough (3.) to study.!* ‘.0 iSow his 
tavern/ 


XLVIII. 


557 We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of tw® 
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance 
which participles have to adjectives, is hi referring to some noun in the sen¬ 
tence in which they are used ; as, u The sun is settinghere, the participle 


setting is said to refer to the noun sun : 

What, then, may ho regarded as a rule 
for the government of the infinitive ? XII. 

“John begins lo learn.” Will you 
parse to learn. ! James l begins 1 550. 

is to ever omitted? 480. 

Will you now parse the exercises in 
the lessons which follow ? 

What is the infinitive mood used for ? 
479. 


hence, _ 

“ They are about to depart.” By what 

is the infinitive here governed ? What is 
the note for this? VII. 

XI.VIII. What is a participle ? 498. 
“ The sun is setting.” What is set¬ 
ting 1 557. To what, then, does setting 
refer? 557. Rule? XIII. 

Will you now parse setting in full? 


(1.) Strike ii governed by Rule XII. 

(2.) See u in Ibe imperative, agreeing with thou or you , uuderstood, by Rule VII. 
(3.) Adverb. {*.) Noun. (6.) CouJuncUoa, 



/ 




PARTICIPLES. 

RULE XIII. 

Participles refer to nouns. 



» 


85 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

“ Phe wind is rising.” 

© 

558. Rising is a present active participle, from the lr 
regular verb to rise —“ Pres, rise ; Imp. rose ; Per/, part, risen’ 
—and it refers to wind, according to Rule XIII. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 


“ The moon is setting.” 

“ The sun is rising.” 

“ The trees are growing.” 
“ John was dancing.” 


“ Mary was playing.” 

“ I have been writing.” 
“ I found him crying.” 
“ I left him rejoicing.” 


PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

“ The rising sun cheers us.” „ 

559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to 
rise —“ Pres, rise ; Imp. rose ; Per/, part, risen”—and belongs to 
sun, by Rule IV. * 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

2 . 

“ The setting sun reminds us of “We view with pleasure the 
declining years.” twinkling stars.” 

“ The roaring winds alarm us.” “ The roaring cataract strikes us 
“ The rippling stream pleases with awe.” 

us.” “ The laboring man should not 

“ The singing-master visited me.” be defrauded.” 

3. 

“ Having dined, I returned to ‘^Having slept, he recovered his 
school ” strength.” 

“ Having fought bravely, they “ Having retired to rest, he "was 
were at last (1.) overcome.” seized with violent pain.” 

“ John, having exercised too vio- “ The thief, having escaped, was 
lently, fainted.” never afterwards seen in that 

region.” 

4. 

“ William returned, mortified at “ A child left to follow his own 
his loss.” ' inclinations is most common- 

“ The stream, swollen by the ly ruined.” 

rains, overflowed its banks.” “ Admired and applauded, he be- 
“ The man accustomed to his came vain.” 

glass seldom reforms.” 


Will you parse the next lesson ? 

Will you parse rising, in the sentence, 
“ The rising sun” l 559. Why is it call¬ 
ed a participial adjective? Am. Because 
it describes, like an adjective, und im¬ 
plies action, like a participle. 

Will you now parse the next lesson ? 


What kind of a participle is Having 
dined”? 504. Why ? 504. 

Who dined, in the phrase, “ Having 
dined, I returned to school” ? 

To what, then, does haring dined, refer r 
Rule XIII. Will you now parse the re¬ 
maining lessons ? 


(1.) At tail u an adverbial pbraae. 











m 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


u A dissipated son grieves his 
parents.” 

“ We must not neglect any known 
duty.” 

“ M y father took the forsaken 

u The men, being fatigued by la¬ 
bor, sought rest in sleep.” 

“ William, being dismissed from 
college, retired to the coun¬ 
try.” 

u Thomas, after having Oeen re¬ 
peatedly admonished to no ef- 


youth into his own house 
and rendered to him deserve* 
assistance.” 

“ William befriended the deserte* 
man.”* 

feet, was severely and justh 
punished.” 

“ The tree, having been weighe< 
down lor a long time by ubun 
dance of fruit, at last (1.) fel 
to the ground.” 


BtyiiE XIV. 

Active participles, from active-transitive verbs , govern 
the objective case. 

“ James is beating John ” 

5G0. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 

NUWIitR, MASCULINE GENDER, ORJECTIVE CASE, and gOVCHied 

beating, by Rule XIV. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 


1 . 

“ John is striking William.” 

“ Susan is studying her lesson.” 

“ Mary has been repeating her 1 
lesson to her mother.” 

“ The teamster, seeing the stage ‘ 
upsetting, ran and prevented 
it.” 

Having obtained my request, 1 


immediately set off for Ros- 
ton.” 

li 1 spied the cat watching a 
mouse.” 

1 Having given directions to his 
servants, he left his family 
and took the stage for Wash¬ 
ington.” 


“ He delights infighting ” 

561. Fighting ia a participial noun, in the objective case, 
and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. 


EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1 . 

4t Job was exhausted by wrest- “ Job practises fencing daily.” 

ling.” “ The instructor teaches readincr, 

“ Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in his 

'sewing.” school.” 

u Walter excels^ m writing. “Whispering is forbidden in 

“ Fishing delights me.” school.” 


“Coating John.” Will you parse ticipial noun ? Jns. Because it imp).. 
John i 50U. Beating ? 55S. action, like u participle, and has, also, tt 

Will you parse the remaining exercises sense of a noun, 
in the lesson above r Will you parse the rust of the exorci 

“In fighting.” Will you parse fight- in this lesson ? 
ing T 561. Why i a fighting called a par- 

--i 


(l.) M M i»»a nlVirtual pUraac. 






M 


/ 






INTERJECTIONS. 05 

603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen¬ 
tences ; as, “ Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord.” 

604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite 
only words j as in the following' sentences : “ Duty and interest forbid vicious 
indulgences.” “ W isdoin or folly governs us.” Each of these forms of ex¬ 
pression contains two sentences, namely, the first, “ Duty forbids vicious in¬ 
dulgences j” “ Interest forbids vicious indulgences :” the second, “ Wisdom 
governs us j” “ Folly governs us.” 

KUXjJEj XI. 

Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense , 
and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

605. “ William writes and ciphers .” 

•And is a copulative conjunction. 

Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the 
verb to cipher —“ Pres, cipher ; lmperf. ciphered; Per. part. 
ciphered. 1. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or WiUiam 
ciphers” — made in the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person singular, and agrees with William understood, 
and is connected to writes by the conjunction and , agreeably to 
Rule XI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

“ John ciphers rapidly, and reads “ Though he is lively, yet he is 
correctly.” not too volatile.” 

*• If we contend about trifles, and “If he has promised, he should 
violently maintain our opiu- act accordingly.” 

ions, we shall gain but few “ He denied that he circulated 
friends.” the report.” 

N , SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

600. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction if? 
One, containing and? As many sentences as there are conjunctions 
which follow; each sentence containing one ? Although. Unless. 
Fur. Because. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson f One, about Clay f 
One, about Monroe? One, about Madison? 


LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

607. Interjections are words thrown in between the 


parts of sentences, to express 
of the speaker. 

What is the use of the copulative con¬ 
junction ? 265. 

Will you repeat the list of copulative 
conjunctions ? 266. 

What docs disjunctive signify ? 271 

What does the disjunctive conjunction 
connect i 274. 

Will you repeat the list of them ? 275. 

What is the rule for connecting words 
by conjunctions t XL 

What other words, besides conjunc¬ 
tions and prepositions, connect ? 603. 


the passions or sudden feelings 


Do conjunctions over connect sen¬ 
tences when they appear to connect words 
only ? 604. Give an example. 604. 

“ William writes and ciphers.” Will 
you parse and ? 605. ciphers ? 605. 

Will you, in the next place, take the 
exercises to be pursod and written, and 
dispose of them ? 

LIV. What is the meaning of inter¬ 
jection ? 283. 

What are interjections i 607. 



96 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


608. We do not say, “ Ah, I !” « Oh, I !” hut “ Ah. me !" “ Oh me !” 
using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here spoken of, 
y»u perceive, is of the first person t hence, 

Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the 
objective case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah! &/C. 

609. We say, “ O thou persecutor 1” “ Oh ye hypocrites !” “ O thou who 
dwellest,” Sc c.: hence, 

Note XI. The interjections O! oh! and ah! require 
the nominative case of pronouns in the second person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

610. “Ah me! I must perish.” 

Ah is an interjection. 

Ale is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, 
objective case, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

“ O, thou (1.) who hast murdered deaf (3.) to the calls of duty 
thy friend !” and honor.” 

“ O, thou who hearest prayer !” “ Oil! happy (4.) us, surrounded 

“ All me ! must 1 endure all this?” with so many blessings. 

“ All! unhappy (2.) thou, who art 

SENTENCES TO RE WRITTEN. 

611. Will you compose a sentence containing alas? One, con¬ 
taining oh ? One, about volcanoes? One, about lakes? One, about 
islands? One, about Webster the statesman? One, about a good 
scholar? One, about a poor scholar? One, about a good instructor? 


LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 

612. Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the 
same case. 

613. When 1 say, “ John the mechanic lias come,” I am speaking of only 
one person ; the two nouns, John and mechanic , both meaning or referring to 
the same person j consequently they are put, by apposition, in the same case I 
hence 

RULE XV. 

When two or more nouns , in the same sentence , signify 
the same thing, they are put , by apposition , in the 

same case. 

Will you repeat from theJist six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex- 
jections ? 285. ercises to be parsed and written ? 

Mow may ail interjection generally be l LV. Meaning of apportion 1 612. 

_ known ? 288. “John the mechanic.” How many 

“Alien In what case is me ? 610. persons are here spoken of? 613. Should, 
What, role or note applies to me ? X. then, the two nouns, John and mechanic , 
“ O thou/* &.c. What nolo applies be in the same, or a different case ? 613 
to thou ? Xi. What is the rule for this agreement ? 

“ Ail mo !” Will you parse ah1 mel XV. 

610. 


(I.) For thou, »ppty Note XI. 

*.i Beioww to m/w, by Rule 'V. 


<2 1 A({ree* with thou, by Eel* IV. 
Apply Ruts IV. 




SYNTAX. 133 

an arbitrary manner.” Sometimes we read, “ In somewhat of.” Tiie mean 
uig is, “ in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary.” 

Will you give an example of the improper use of idiot instead of that 1 ^ 

5. 

“ He would not be persuaded but “ These commendations of his 
what (I.) 1 was greatly in children appear to have been 

fault.” made in somewhat (2.) an in 

judicious manner .” 

6 . The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that there 
is generally harshness in (he application of it, except to the proper names of 
persons, or the general terms man, woman, &c. A term which only implies 
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will 
hardly authorize the use of it ; as, “ That the faction in England who most 
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions.” “That faction which,'’ would 
have been better; and the same remark will serve for the following examples: 
“ France, who whs in alliance with Sweden.” “The court who,” &c. “ The 

cavalry who,” Ccc. “ The cities who aspired at liberty.” “ That party 
among us who,” dec. “ The family whom they consider as usurpers.” 

In some cases, it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly applied 
or not ; as, “ The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some cities 
abound.” For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in 
many cases claim the personal relative. “ None of the company whom he most 
affected could cure him of the melancholy under which lie labored.” The 
word ac qualm a nee may have the same construction. 

JIow is the relative who used ? 

“ fie instructed and fed the “ llo was the ablest minister 
crowds who ( 3.) surrounded which James ever possessed.” 

him.” . “ The court, who gives currency 

“ Sidney was one of the wisest to manners, ought to be ex- 

and most active governors, emplary.” (4.) 

which Ireland had enjoyed “ 1 am happy in the friend which 
for several years.” 1 have long proved.” 

’ 7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives us 

the idea of reason and reflection ; and, therefore, the application of the person¬ 
al rela’ive who, in tins case, seems to be harsh : “A child who.” It is still 
more improperly applied to animals: “ A lake frequented by that (owl 
whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water.” 

Do we sav, “ A child who,” or “ A child which” 1 Will you repeat 
the Note for this ? 

7. 

“ The child whom, we have just “ lie is Like (4.) a beast (5.) of 
seen, is wholesomely fed, and prey, ' v 'ho destroys without 

not injured by bandages or pity.” 
clothing.” 

8 . When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does 
not refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. “ It is 
no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, 
who was but another name for prudence and economy. ? Better thus i 
*• whose name was but another word tor prudence,” Ac. The word whom 
begins likewise to be restricted to persons ; yet it is not done so general 
ly ( but that good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things 
The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as wc may see in tin 
following instances; “ Pleasure, whose nature,” 6c c. “Call every produc¬ 
tion, whose parts and whose nature,” &c._s^__ 

'1 ) “that.” Conjunction. (2.) “ in avtanuer which is, in some respects, injur 

did,ms.” (3.j “ that, ” (4 ) Rule IV. v 5.) Rule X. Note XVll. 

12 




134 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect 
to persons ; and tliat is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, 
or a particular person among a number of others. We should then say, 
0 Which of the two/ or “ \Vhick of them is he or she V* 

44 The court of queen Elizabeth, who,” See. Will you correct this sentence, 
■and give the Note for it ? 

’** Having once disgusted (1.) him, deceive and betray, should be 
lie could never regain the fa- avoided as the poisonous ad- 
vor of Nero, who was indeed der.” 

another name for cruelty.” 44 Who of those men came to hia 
'** Flattery, tchosc nature >'2.) is to assistance ?” 

9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes find 
an ambiguity m the use of it; as, when we say,“ The disciples of Christ, whom 
we imitate,” wc may mean the imitation cither of Christ, or of his disciples. 
The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the 
proper and determinate use of the-relative, so that it may readily present its 
antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or am* 
•biguily. 

What is remarked in this Note on the use of the relative pronoun ? 

9. 

u< The king (3.) dismissed his min- u There are millions of people in 
ister without any inquiry; the empire (4.) of China, 

who had never before com- whose support is derived, al- 

mitted so unjust an action.” most entirely from rice.” 

MO. It is ar.d it was are often, after the manner of the French, used in a 
plural construction, and bv some of our best writers ; as, “ It is either a few 
great men who decide fo* the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
ring-leader /’ •• It is they that are the real authors, though the soldiers are the 
actors of the revolution 3 ” •' It was the lieretics that first began to rail,” See. ; 
44 ’ Tis these that early taint the female mind.” This license In the construction 
of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, been certainly abused 
in the following sentence, which is thereby made a very awkward one : 41 It is 
wonderful tiic very few accidents, which, in several years, luippen from this 
; practice.” 

How are it is and it was often used ? Give an example in which they are 
■ used incorrectly in this sense. 

TO. 

“ It is remarkable his continual “ It is indisputably true his nsser- 
endeavors to serve us, not- tion, though it is a ’paradox." 

withstanding our ingrati- ( 6 .) 

tude." (5.) 

11. The interjections O! oh! and ah! require the objective case of a pro¬ 
noun in the first person after them ; as, “ O me 1 Oh me ! Ah me !” but the 
nominative case :n the second person ; as, 44 O thou persecutor!” 44 O ye hyp¬ 
ocrites !” 44 O thou who dwellcst,” Sec. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fre¬ 
quently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the mas¬ 
culine or feminine gender ; as, “ It was 1 :” 44 It was the man or woman that 
did it.” 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted mid understood t thus wc say. 
“ As appears, as follows,” for '* As it appears, as it follows 3 ” and 44 Slay be,” 
Tor 44 It may be.” 


(1.) 44 Haring disgusted '* Rule XIM. (2.) “ the nature which,” (3.) “ The 

king, who had never,” &.c. (4- 1 “ There are in the empire,” &c. (5.) •* His con¬ 
tinual ” &.c.; ending the sentence with, “ are remarkable .** (6.) “ Hia oeaertion, 

though paradoxical,” Sea. 




SYNTAX. 


135 


# 

The neuter pronoun it 5s sometimes employed to express, 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, ‘‘ It happened on a sum¬ 
mer's clay “ Who is it that calls on me V’ 

2d. The state or condition of any person or thing : as, “ How is it with 
you V’ 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event; or 
any person considered merely as a cause?; as, “ Wo hoard her say it was not 
he *• The truth is, it was 1 that helped her.” 

VVhy is it incorrect to say, u Oh 1 ” ‘l VViiy incorrect to say, “ Oh thee” ? 

11 . 

“ Ah 1 unhappy thee, who art “ Oil ! happy we, surrounded 
deaf to the calls of duty and with so many blessings.” 
of honor.’ 

nxrLE xxxir. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when 
no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; 
as, “ The master who taught us “ The trees which 
are planted.” 

When a. nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of the sentence ; as, “ He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, ivhose I am, and whom 
I serve, is eternal.” 

In the several member- - of the last sentence, the relative performs a different 
office, in the first member, it marks the agent; in the second, it submits to 
the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; 
and in the fourth, the object of an action : and tiierefore it must be in the three 
different cases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to differ¬ 
ent verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the antecedent to 
the latter verb ; as, “ True philosophy , which is the ornament of our nature, 
consists more in the love of our dut y, and the practice of virtue, than in great 
talents and extensive knowledge.” 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both brandies of 
the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part : “ How can we 

avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved 
themselves our real friends ?” u These are the men whom, you might sup¬ 
pose, w ere die authors of the work.’’ “ If you were here, you would find three 
or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably.” In all these 
places, it should be irho, instead of whom. The two latter sentences contain 
a nominative between the relative and the verb; and. therefore, seem to 
contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the nominative 
of the verb with which rhe relative is connected.—The remaining examples re¬ 
fer to the second part of the rule : “ Men of line talents are not always the 

persons who we* should esteem.” “ The persons who you dispute with are 
precisely of your opinion.” “ Our tutors are our benefactors, wlio we owe 
obedience to, and who we ought to love.” In these sentences, whom should 
be used instead of who. * 

“ These are the men whom, you might suppose, were,” &c. Will you cor¬ 
rect this example, and give the rule for it ? 


136 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


11 We are dependent on each 
others’ assistance : whom is 
there that can subsist by him¬ 
self?” 

“ If he will not hear his best 
friend, whom shall be sent to 
admonish him ?” 

“ They who (1.) much is given 
to, will have much ( 2 .) to an¬ 
swer for.” (3.) 

“It is not to be expected that 
they, whom in early life have 
been dark and deceitful, should 
afterwards become fair and 
ingenuous.” 


“ They who have labored to make 
us wise and good, are the per¬ 
sons who we ought to love 
and respect, and who we 
ought to be grateful to.” 

“ The persons, who conscience 
and virtue support, may smile 
at the caprices of fortune.” 

“ From the character of those 
who you associate with, your 
own will be estimated.” 

“ That (4.) is the student who I 
ave the book to, and whom, 
am persuaded, deserves it.” 


1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or pro¬ 
noun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which contains 
the question ; as, “ Whose books are these ?” “ They are John’s.” u Wlw 

gave them to him ?” “ W T e” “ Of whom did you buv them V’ “ Of a book¬ 
seller ; him who fives at the Bible and Crown.” “ 1 Vlwm did von see there '!” 
*• Both him and the shopman.” The learner will readily comprehend this 
rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to 
express the answers at large, we should sav, “ They are John’s books 5 ” “ We 

t ave them to him :” “ We bought them of him who lives,” &c. 3 u We saw 
oth him and the shopman.” As the relative pronoun, when used interroga¬ 
tively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to the 
question, that word or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to the in¬ 
terrogative. 

* Of whom did you buy them ?” “ Of a bookseller 5 he wdio lives,” &c. 
What is w rong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the 
Note for it ? 


1 

“ Of w r hom tvere the articles 
bought ?” “ Of a mercer 3 he 
(5.) v I10 -esides near ((>.) the 
mansion-house.” 

“ W as any person besides ( 6 .) the 
mercer present ?” “ Yes, both 
him and his clerk.” 


“ Who was the money paid to?” 
“ To the mercer and his 

clerk.” 

“ Who counted it ?” “ Both the 
clerk and him.” 


’IULE XXV. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of 
different persons , the relative and, verb may agree in 
person with either , according to the sense; as, “ I am 
the man who command youor, “ I am the mail 
who commands you.” 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning 
rather obscurely. It w’ould be more perspicuous to say, “ I, who command 
you, am the man.” Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring 
the relative to different antecedents, w'ill be more evident to the learner in the 


•'(1.) “ to whom." (2.) 673. 

(5.) Rule XV. 


(4.) Note I. 405. 
(6.) 47. 


(3.) 596. 





SYNTAX. 


137 


following sentences : "lam the general who gives the orders to-day f u I ara 
the general, who give the orders to-day j” that is, u I, who give the orders to¬ 
day, am the general.” 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either 
of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence ; as in the following instance : “ 1 am the Lord, tliat mukeih rJl 
things : that stretcheth forth the heavens alone.” Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is 
consistent: the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, end the verb agrees 
wits, the relative in the third person : " I am the Lord, which Lord, or he, that 
mukeih all things.” If / were made the antecedent, the relative and verb 
should agree with it in the first person ; as, u I am the Lord, that make all 
things; that stretch forth the heavens alone.” But should it follow, “that 
spreadeth abroad the earth by myself,” there would arise a confusion of per¬ 
sons, and a manifest solecism. 

11 1 am the man who command you.” “ I am the man who commands you.” 
What is the nominative to command in the first sentence 1 What to cu7rtmunds 
in the second ? Rule for each ? Why is the verb of a different persou in 
different sentences '! 


"I acknowledge tliat (4.) I am 
the teacher, (5.) who adopt 
that sentiment, and maintains 
the propriety of such meas¬ 
ures.” (2.) 

* l Thou art a friend (5.) that hast 
often relieved me, and that 
has not deserted me now, in 
the tiYhe of peculiar need.” 

M I am the man who approves of 
wholesome discipline, and 
who recommend it to others ; 
but I am not a person who 
promotes useless severity, or 
who object to mild and gen¬ 
erous treatment.” 


“ I pe:uoeive that thou art a pupil 
who p issesses bright parts, 
but who hast cultivated them 
but (3.) little.” (4.) 

“ Thou art he (5.) who breathest 
on tire earth with the breath 
of spring, and who covereth 
it with verdure and beauty.” 

“ I am the Lord (5.) thy God, (5.) 
who teaoheth thee to profit, 
and who lead thee by the way 
thou shouldst go.” 

“ Thou art the Lord who did 
choose Abraham, amibrought- 
est him forth (4.) out of (6.) 
Ur of the Chaldees.' 


HUM IV. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE VIII. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which, they describe. 

Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must, agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 

I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

4 few instances of the breach of this rule ate here exhibited : “ I have not 
travelled this twenty years «these twenty.” " ! am not recommending 
these kind of sufferings “ this kind.” “ Those set oi books was a valuable 
present u that set. 

a i have not travelled this twenty years.” How should this be altered 1 
Why? 

« These kind of indulgences soft- playing (9.) this two hours. 

en and injure the mind.” (10 ) 

« Instead (7.) of improving ( 8 .) “ Those sort of favors did real in 

yourselves, you iiave been jury, under the appearance ol 

J kindness.” 


(1.) 652. 

(4.) Adverb. 
XIII (10.) 


(9.) “ adopts and maintains,” 
(5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. 
Rule XXII 646. 

12 * 


or “ adopt and maintain .” 

(7.) 247. (8.) 561. 


(3.) 654. 
(9.) Rule 




ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


138 


“ The chasm made (1.) by the “ How many a sorrow (5.) should 
earthquake was twenty foot we avoid, if we were not in- 

(2.) broad, (3.) and one hun- dustrions to make them !” 

dred fathom (4.) in depth/’ “ He saw one or more persons (6.) 

enter (7.) the garden.” 

1. The word nwans, in the singular number, and the phrase “ by this 
means” u by that means are used by our best and most correct writers j 
namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterfoury, Addison, Steele, Pope, 1 hey arc, 

indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, if not 
affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, u by this mean ; “ by that 

mean;” u it was by a mean ; ?J although it is more agreeable to the general 
analogy of the language. u The word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class 
of words, which do not change their termination on account of number ; tor it 
is used alike in both numbers.” 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the follo\%jng sentences: 
44 Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country ; and 
with this amends he was content/' “ Peace of mind is an honorable amends 
for the sacrifices of interest.” “ In return, he received the thanks of his em- 

f iloyers, and the present of a large estate : these wore ample amends for all his 
abors.” u We have described the rewards of vice : the good man's amends 
are of a different nature.” 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word means ) 
had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived 
from the French amende , though now it is exclusively established in the plural 
form. If, therefore, it be alleged, that mean should be applied in ihe singular, 
because it is derived from the French moven, the same kind of argument may 
be advanced in favor of ihe singular amende ; and the general analogy of the 
language may also be pleaded tn support of' it. 

Campbell, in his Philosophy of’ Rhetoric, has the following remark on the 
subject before us : No person? of taste will, 1 presume, venture so tar to vio¬ 
late the present usage, and consequently to shock ihe ears of the generality of 
readers, as to sav, ‘ By this mean , by that mean. 7 ” 


(].) Rule Xril. 


(5.) 


(2.) Note XVI IL 648. 
many sorrows •” 


(3.) 44 chasm — hrnadd' Rule IV. 
(f>.) 44 erne person , nr mare than one,.” 


(4.) Rule IX. 

(7.) Rule XIT. 

* 44 Bit this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with 
a long march* *.” Bacon. 

44 By this means one great restraint from doin<r evil would he taken away.” 44 And 
this is an .admirable means to improve men in virtue.” 44 By that means they have 
rendered their duty more difficult.” Tillotson. 

44 It renders us careless of approving ourse lves to God, *n * by that weans securing 
the continuance of his goodness.” 44 \ good character, w.jin established, should 
not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good.” 

Atterbury. 

44 By this means they are happy in each other.” 44 He by that weans pr« -erves hi* 
superiority.” Addison. 

44 Your vanity by this means will want, its food.” Steele. 

44 By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish.” Pope 

44 Which custom lias proved the most ofFeCtun! means to ruin the nobles.” 

Dean Swift. 

44 There is no means of escaping the persecution.” 44 Faith is not only a means of 
obeying, but a principal act of obedience.” * T)r. Youno. 

44 He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power.” 

Lord Lyttleton’s Henkv TL 

4< John was too much intimidated not‘to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety.” Goldsmith. 

44 Lest this means should fail.” 44 Rv means of ship^numey, the hile king,” fee 
44 The only means of securing o durable peace.” Hume. 

44 By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland,” fee. 

Bl,AC KSTONE. 

44 By this means go many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters.” 

Dr# Robertson. 

44 By this means they bear witness to each other.” Burke. 

44 By this means the wrath of man was made to turn again?* itself.” Dr. Blair. 

44 A magazine, which has, by Phis means , contained,” fee. 44 Birds, in general 
orocure their food by means of their heak .” Dk. Paley. 



SYNTAX. 


m 


Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular 
number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point ; but rather 
dubiously, as if they knew that they were questioning eminem authorities as 
well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the applica¬ 
tion of this word to the singular number, appears from their own language ^ 
“Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become members or 
other sentences by means of some additional connection. —l)n. Low'i u s in¬ 
troduction to English Grammar. _ . . 

“ There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorat* , 
but by means of something already known.’ — Or. .Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures npikes no use, as 
far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean ; though there are several 
instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and connection con- 
tended for. “ By this means thou shall have no portion on this side the river. 
Ezra iv. 16. “ That by meaits of death,” foe. lleb. ix. Id. It will scarcely 

be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes did not accurately un¬ 
derstand the English language ; or that they would have admitted one form oi 
this word, and rejected the other, had not their determination been conforma¬ 
ble to the best usage. An attempt, therefore, to recover an old word, so long 
since disused by the most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful ; 
especially as th<* rejection of it is not attended with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of 
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the stand¬ 
ard of language ; especially if, in particular instances, this practice continue 
after objection and due consideration. Every connection and application ot 
words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to 
respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 


Si volet usns 


“ Q,nem penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi. 


Hor. 


On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the 
general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be eon 
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. 
“ None of them are varied to express the gender ;” and yet none originally 
signified no one. “ He himself shall do the work here, what was at first 
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
“ You have behaved yourselves well in this example, the word you is put m 
the nominative ease plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it w-as con¬ 
fined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used lor the nominative 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, 1 is 
the grammarian’s business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously 
opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes 

of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity; and, 

in some decree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided : Inn lie 
cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in lus aims, or to assist the learner, 
in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious^are certainly within the grammarian s 
province Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground ot derivation, 
analogy and propriety : and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan¬ 
guage': but wE authority speaks out, and decides the point, it were perpet.i- 
allyMo unseltle**he language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, l ien, 
under the limitation mentioned, become the taw, as clearly as the plainest 

a "Vh? rt>ader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the word 
mean in the old form has a verv uncouth appearance : “By the mean ni ad¬ 
versity we are often instructed.” “ He preserved h.s health by mean of exer¬ 
cise ” “ Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency. I hey should 

be, “ By means of adversity,” foe.; “ By means of exercise,” &c.; F nigek- 

*' Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1.) mean m the smgu- 
lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, &c. , 

(].) Nouns »-ro sometimes called substantives. 








140 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


as, u This is a mean between the two ex*remes.” But in the sense of instru¬ 
mentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost every 
writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what is 
singular ; these means and those means, when they respect plurals ; as, “ He 
Jived temperately, and by this means preserved his health ;” “ The scholars 
were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by these meant 
acquired knowledge.” 

vVe have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to re¬ 
flect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of propriety 
in the uSc of language. 

In what number is the word means used ? What does l)r. Priestley remark 
concerning the use of this word ? What other word is used in this manner 1 
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, “ By this 
mean” 1 Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of means in the 
singular number ? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1.) n*ean in 
the singular number ? Give an example. When should “ This means” and 
“ That means” be used ! When “ These means” and “ Those means” ? 


1 . 

u Charles was extravagant, and 
by this mean became poor 
and despicable.” 

H It was by that ungenerous mean 
that (*J.) he obtained his end.” 

4< Industry is the mean of obtain¬ 
ing competency.” 

u Though a promising measure, it 
is a mean which I cannot 
adopt.” 


“ This person embraced every op¬ 
portunity to display his tal¬ 
ents ; and by these means 
rendered himself ridiculous.” 

“ Joseph was industrious, frugal 
and discreet; and by this 
means obtained property and 
reputation.” 


2. When two persons or things arc spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in refer¬ 
ence to the former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, 11 Self-love, which 
*s the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man would 
be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no end.” 

How are the pronouns (hat and this used ? 


“ Religion raises men above them¬ 
selves ; irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes : that (3.) 
binds them down (4.) to a 
poor, pitiable speck of perish¬ 
able earth ; this opens for 
them a prospect to the skies.” 

* More rain falls in the first, two 
summer months, than in the 
first two winter ones; but it 
makes a much greater siunv 


upon the earth in those than 
in these; because there is a 
. much slower evaporation.” 
Ilex and Tyrannus are of very 
different characters. The one 
(3.) rules his people by lawt 
to which they consent; the 
other, (o.) by his absolute will 
and power: this is called free¬ 
dom; that (5.) tyranny.” 


3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree with the 
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only; asj u The kinj 
of Israel, and Jelioshapliat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne 
u Every, tree is known by its fruitunless the plural noun convey a col 
lective iuea; as, “ Every six months j” “ Every hundred years.” The fol 
lowing phrases are exceptionable : “ Let each esteem others better that 
themselves;” it ought to be, “himself” “ The language should be botl 
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities an 
wanting, the language is imperfect;” it should be, “ is wanting.” a Even 


(J ) Note 1, P . 139. (2.) 652. (3.) 407. Rule VI, (4.) Adverb 

i6 ) Rulo XL. 407. * 



SYNTAX. 


\\ 

; one of the letters -hear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment ; r 

11 “ hears a regular date , and contains.” “ Every town and village were 

burned; every grove and every tree were cut down}" u was burned, and 

1 was cut down." 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, “ The king of Is¬ 
rael, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne;” 

| ‘Nadab and Abiiiu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." 
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; either properly 
signifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively. 

“ The king of IsraeL and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of 
them on their throne." ^VilI you correct this, and give the rule for it? 


3. 

“ Each of them, in their (I.) turn, 
receive the benefits to which 
they are entitled." 

11 My counsel to each of you is, 
that you (2.) should make it 
your endeavor to come to a 
friendly agreement." 

“ By discussing what (3.) relates 
to each particular, in their 
order, we shall better under¬ 
stand the subject." 

“ Every person, whatever (4.) be 
their station, (5.) are bound 
by the duties of morality and 
religion.” 

“ Every leaf, every twig, (6.) 
every drop of water, teem 
with life.” 

u Every man’s heart and temper 


is productive of much (7.) in¬ 
ward joy or bitterness.” 

“ Whatever (8.) he undertakes, 
either (9.) his pride or his 
folly disgust us.’ 1 

“ Every man and every woman 
were numbered.” 

“ Neither of those men seem to 
have any idea that their opin¬ 
ions may be ill founded.” 

“ When benignity and gentleness 
reign within, (7.) we are a! 
ways (7.) least (7.) in hazard 
from without: (10.) every per¬ 
son and every occurrence are 
beheld in the most favorable 
light.” 

“ On either side of the river was 
there the tree of life.” 


4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs ; as, “ Indiffer¬ 
ent honest ; excellent well; miserable poor;" instead of “Indifferently hon¬ 
est ; excellently w r ell ; miserably poor.” “ He behaved himself conformable 
k* that great example “ conformably.” “ Endeavor to live hereafter suita¬ 

ble to a person in thy station ;" “ suitaMy.” “ l can never think so very mean 
of him ;" “ meanly” “ He describes this river agreeable to the common read¬ 


ing ;" “ agreeably.” “ Agreeable to my promise, I now write ;" “ agreeably.” 



when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the hj is 
omitted ; as, “ Some men think exceeding dearly, and reason exceeding forci- 
blv;” “ She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely.”—“ He acted in 
this business holder than was expected." “ They behaved the noblest, because 
they were disinterested." They should have been, “ more boldly, most nobly.” 
The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied; as, “ He was such an extrav¬ 
agant young man. that he spent his whole patrimony in a few yearsit should 
be, “ so extravagant, a young man.” “ I never before saw such larg^trees 
“ saw trees so large.” When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the 

is, “ Such a temper is seldom found :" but 


So bad a temper is seldom 


word such is properly applied; as, 
when degree is signified, we use the word so; as, 
found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives ; as, “ The tutor ad 
dressed him in terms rather wrarm, but suitably to his offence;" “ suitable .” 


(I.) “Aw.” (2.) “Ac.” 

(6.) Rule XI. (7.) Adverb. 

without,” i. e. “ externally.” 589. 


(3.) 437. (4.) Rule XV. 

(8.) Rule VI[I. (9.) 659. 


(5.) Rule VI 
(10.) ‘‘from 








m 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


14 They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed " solitary. 
"He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religionj" 
44 agreeable. 1 ' “ The study of syntax should be previously to that ol punctua¬ 
tion y’ " previous.’ 1 

Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular 
constructions, whether an adjective, or an adverb, ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and direct their 
determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjective 
and the adverb ; and consider whether, in the case in question, quality or man¬ 
ner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper 5 in ihe hitter, an 
adverb. A number of examples will iliustrate this direction, and prove useful 
on other occasions. 

" She looks cold—She looks coldly on him." 

" He feels warm—He feels warmly the insult offered to him." 

44 He became sincere aifd virtuous-—He became sincerely virtuous." 

“ She lives free from care—He lives freely at another’s expense." 

44 Harriet alw'ays appears neat—She dresses neatly." 

44 Charles has grown great by his w isdom—He has grown greatly in reputa¬ 
tion." 

44 They now appear happy—They now appear happily in earnest.” 

44 The statement seems exact—The statement seems exactly in point." 

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word im- 
’ ateiy connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and conse¬ 
quently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying the 
sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an ad¬ 
jective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : 44 This is 
agreeable to our interest." " That behavior was not suitable to his station." 
"Rules should be conformable to sense." " The rose smells [is] sweet." 
"How sweet the hoy smells [is]!" "How delightful the country appears 
[is] !" " How pleasant the fields look [are!!" "The clouds look [are] dark." 
" How black the sky looked [was] !" " The apple tastes [is] sour 1" " How 

bitter the plums tasted [were] !" "He feels [isj happy." In all these sen¬ 
tences, w e can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to be r 
for the other verbs. Rut in the following sentences we cannot do this : " The 
dog smells disagreeably." 44 George feels exquisitely." " How pleasantly 
she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this Note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us j but 
we must not reject rules, because they are attended with exceptions. 

Why is 44 indifferent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do vve say, " ex¬ 
ceeding dreadful," and "exceeding great"? What, then, do w'e use in the 
place of exceeding ? When, then, do vve use exceedingly ? Wlien exceeding ? 
" The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." 
Why is this sentence wrong ? Correct it. How can we tell whether an ad¬ 
jective or an adverb ought to be used ? Which do we use, when quality is 
indicated ? Which, when manner is indicated ? Which does the verb to be 
generally require to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb? To illus¬ 
trate the distinct and proper use of both 4he adverb and adjective, I will give 
you some examples. Would you then say, " He is diligently and attentive¬ 
ly," or "diligent and attentive"? " She will be happy," or "happily"? 
" He looks cold," or " coldly" ? " She looks cold on him." Can we use is 

for looks) and make sense ? Would you, then, say, " She looks cold on him," 
or " coldly on him ” ? " She lives freely [is] from care' 7 ? Why ? " He lives 

free at another's expense" ? "He feeis warmly" ? " He feels warm the in¬ 
sult offered hint" ? " He became sincerely and virtuously" ? " He beeame 

sincere virtuous" ? Why ? " Harriet always appears neatly—She dresses 

neat” ? " Charles lias grown great by his wisdom—He is grown great in his 

reputation"? "They now appear happily—They now appear happy in 
earnest" ? " The statement seems exactly—The statement seems exact in 

point" ? " How sw'eetly the hay sk %’ls !" ? How delightful the country 

appears!" ? " How' pleasant the fielc A>ok 1" 1 " The clouds look darkly" 1 
r The apples taste sourly" ? 


SYNTAX. 


143 


w SIu jds proper , writes very 
ne^and composes accurate .” 
'* He was extreme prodigal, and 
his property is now near ex¬ 
hausted.” 

u They generally succeeded ; for 
they lived conformable to the 
* rules of prudence.” 
u We may reason very clear and 
exceeding strong , without 
knowing that there is such a 
thing as a syllogism.” 

“ He had many virtues, and was 
exceeding beloved .” 

M The amputation was exceeding 
well performed, and saved the 
patient’s life.” 

“ He came agreeable to his prom¬ 
ise, and conducted himself 
suitable to the occasion.” 
u He speaks very fluent, reads 
excellent, but does not think 
very coherent.” 

He behaved himself submissive, 
and was exceeding careful 
not to give (1.) offence.” 

They rejected the advice, and 
conducted themselves exesed- 
ingly indiscreetly.” 

4i He is a person of great abilities, 
and exceeding upright; and 
is like to be a very useful 
member (2.) of the commu- 
' nity.” 


ie The conspiracy was the easier 
(3.) discovered, from its (4.) 
being known (5.) to many.” 

11 Not being fully acquainted with 
the subject, he could affirm, 
no stronger (tf.) than he did.” 

“ He was so deeply impressed 
with the subject, that few 
could speak nobler upon it.” 

il We may credit his testimony, 
for he says express, that he 
saw the transaction.” 

u Use a litt’c wine for thy stom¬ 
ach’s sake, and thine often 
(7.) infirmities.” 

<l From these favorable begin¬ 
nings, we may hope for a 
soon (8.) and prosperous is. 
sue.” 

“ He addressed several exhorta¬ 
tions to them suitably to their 
circumstances.” 

“ Conformably to their vehe-* 
mence of thought, was their 
vehemence of gesture.” 

“ We should implant in the mind® 
of youth such seeds and prin¬ 
ciples of piety and virtue, as 
(9.) are likely to take soonest 
and deepest root.” 

u Such (10.) an amiable disposi¬ 
tion will secure universal re¬ 
gard.” 

“ Such distinguished virtues sel¬ 
dom occur.” 


5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as “a 
worser conduct}” “on lesser hopes 3 ” “ a more serener temper }” “the most 
straitest sect}” “a more superior work.” They should be, “worse con¬ 
duct j” “ less hopes j” “a more serene temper}” “ the straitest sect}” <<j a su¬ 
perior work.” 

“ A worser conduct.” Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule 
for it ? 

5. 

u ’Tis more easier to build two 11 The pleasures of the under¬ 
chimneys than to maintain standing are more preferable 
one.” than (14.) those of the imagi- 

“ The tongue is like (11.) a race- nation, or of sense.” 

horse, (12.) which runs the “ The nightingale sings: hers is 
faster (13.) the lesser weight the most sweetest voice in the 
it carries.” grove.” 


(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Rulo XV. (3 .)“ more easily.” (4.) Rulo I 

to.) “ being known ”—participial noun. (6.) “not affirm more strongly.” 

\7., “ thy frequent.” (8.) “ speedy.” (9.) 656. (10.) “ A disposition 

ro amiable,” See. See the Note, a few lines before the close. - (11.) Rule IV. 

113.) Rule X.—Note XVII. 647. (13.) 590. (14.) ” preferable to.” 



144 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


The Most Highest hath created 
us for his glory, and for our 
own happiness. ’ 


* The Supreme Being is the moat 
wisest, and most powerfullest, 
and the most best of beings ’ 


6 . Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not 
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded; such as 
chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme, &e. ; which are sometimes 
improperly written cliiefest, extremist, perfcctest, lightest, most universal, most 
supreme, &c. The following expressions are, therefore, improper: “He 
sometimes claims admission to the cliiefest offices.” “ The quarrel became so 
universal and national.” “ A method of' attaining the lightest and greatest 
happiness.” The phrases “ so perfect,” “ so right,” “ so extreme,” “so uni¬ 
versal,” &.C., are incorrect; because they imply that one thing is less perfect, 
less extreme, Ate., than another, which is not possible. 

Is it proper to say, “ The most perfect work ” '* Why net ? 


0 . 

■“ Virtue confers the supremest (l.) 
dignity on man ; and should 
be his cliiefest desire.” 

** His assertion was more true (2.) 
than that of his opponent; 
nay, the words of the latter 
* were most untrue.” (3.) 


“ His work is perfect; (4.) his 
brother’s, more perfect; and 
his father’s, the most perfect 
of all.” 

“ He gave the fullest and most 
sincere proof of the truest 
friendship.” 


7 . Inaccuracies are often found in the wav in which the degrees of com¬ 
parison are applied mid construed. The following are examples of wrong 
construction in this respect: “ This noble nation hath, of all others, admit¬ 
ted fewer corruptions.” The word fewer is here construed precisely as if 
it were the superlative. It should be, “ This noble nation hath admitted 
fewer corruptions than any other.” We commonly say, “ This is the weak¬ 
er of the two,” or, “ tiie weakest of the two;” but the former is the regu¬ 
lar mode of expression, because there are only two tilings compared. “The 
vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any oilier.” 
“ He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all others.” 
Both these modes of expression are faulty: we should not sav, “the best 
of any man,” or “the best of any other man,” for “the best of men.” 
The sentences may be corrected by substituting the comparative in the 
room of die superlative: “The vice, Slc., is what enters deeper into the 
soul than any other.” “ He celebrates, &c., as more perfect than any oth- 
;er.” ft is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression 
:grammatical : “ Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul.” 
“ He celebrates, See., as the most perfect of all churches.” 'These sen¬ 
tences contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution the learner. 
The words deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have 
been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect, and most perfect 
are improper ; because perfection adurts of no degrees of comparison. 
We may say, nearer or nearest to perlection, or more or less imperfect. 


fti speaking of two persons, should we say, “ The weaker of the two,” 
jot “ The weakest of the two ” 1 Why ? 

7. 

a .A talent of this kind would, “ He spoke with so much pro- 
perhaps, prove the likeliest priety, that 1 understood him 

<of any other (5.) to succeed.” the best of all the others (6.) 

w Pie is the strongest of the two, who spoke on the subject.” 
but not the wisest." “ Eve was the fairest of all hei 

daughters.” 


(1.) “the supremest — supreme .” (2.) “ better founded.** (3.) “ wot true.’ 

4.' “well executed—still better — best.** (5.) “all.** (6.) “ of all who * 




SYNTAX. 


145 


8 . In some cases, adjectives should not he separated from their substan¬ 
tives, even by words which modify their meaning, and make hut one sense 
with them , as, ** A large enough number, surely. It should be, u A number 
large enough.” u Hie lower sort ol people are good enough judges of one 
not very distant from them.” 


The adjective is usually placed before its substantive; as, “ A generous 
man ;” “ How amiable a woman !” The instances in which it comes alter the 
substantive, are the following: 

1st. When something 'depends upon the adjective ; and when it gives a bet¬ 
ter sound, especially ui poetry; as; u A man generous to his enemies “ Feed 
me with food convenient for me 3 ” “ A tree three feet thick ; 7} u A body of 
troops fifty thousand strong u The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt. 77 

2d. \Vlien tiie adjective is emphalieal j as, u Alexander the Great; 77 

Lewis the Hold ; 7 ' u Goodness infinite ; 77 u Wisdom unsearchable 71 

3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, u A man just, 
wise, and charitable;” u A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous.” 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an ad verb j as, “ A boy regularly 
studious ;” “ A girl unaffectedly modest.” 

5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a sub¬ 
stantive and ad adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or fol¬ 
low it; as, u The man is happy 77 or, u Happy is the man, who makes virtue 
his choice “ The interview was' delightful ; 77 or, “ Delightful was the inter¬ 
view.” 

6 th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive 
placed after an active verb ; as, u Vanity often renders its possessor despica¬ 
ble 77 In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the sub¬ 
stantive; as s “ How despicable does vanity often render its possessor!” 

There is sometimes great beauty, as w'ell as force, in placing the adjective 
before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it; as, “ Great is the 
Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !” 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars 
comprehended under it. “ Ambition, interest, honne* all concurred.” Some- 
limes a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is 
used in conjunction until this adjective; as, “Royalists, republicans, church* 
men, sectaries, courtiers, all parties , concurred in the illusion.” 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly Asso¬ 
ciate with a singular noun ; as, u Our desire, vour intention, their resignation.” 
'This association applies rather to things of an intellectual natifre, than to those 
which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive wiih its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word ; 
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and soon , 
as, “ An old man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man.” 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in¬ 
stances, put as if it were absolute; especially where the noun has been men 
tinned before, or easily understood, though not expressed; as, “ I often sur 
vey it.” 

Is it correct to say. “ A large enough number” ? How should it be alter 
ed ? What is the Note for it \ Should the adjective Unplaced usually betore, 
or after tint; noun / 


8 . 

“ He spoke in a distinct enough 
mariner to be heard by the 
whole assembly.” 

1 Thomas is equipped with a new 
(1.) pair of slioes, and a new 


pair of gloves : he is the ser 
vantof an old rich (2.) inan. u 

“ The two first (3.) it* the row are 
cherry-trees, the two others 
are pear-trees.” 


*i.) 44 a pair of new shuts” 

13 


(9.) 44 rich old.” (3.) Nolo I.—Hula VI. 






J46 


ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 


StJLE II. 


Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE IX. 

The indefinite article , a or an, belongs to nouns of the 

singular number . 

' ' . RULE III. 

The definite article , the, belongs to nouns of the singu¬ 
lar or plural numbers. 


The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied, according to their distinct nature} as, “Gold is corrupting} die sea 
is green 5 a lion is bold.” 

it is the nature of both the articles to delen 

an* 


A determines it to be one single 


tiling of the 


mine or limit the thing spoken of. 
e kind, leaving it still uncertain 


which 5 tin? determines which it is, or, il many, which they arc 

The following passage will serve as an example of tiie different uses of a 
ami the , and of the force of the substantive without any article : “ Man was 
made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men ; but a man will 
naturally entertain a more particular kindness f >r the men with whom he has 
the most frequent intercourse 3 and enter into a still closer union with the man 
whose temper and disposition suit best with his own.” 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may bo of some use to exhibit 
a few instances ; “ And I persecuted inis way unto the death.” The apostle 
does not mean any particular sort ol* death, but death in general : the definite 
article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought to be, “ unto death,” without 
any article. 

When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, lie will guide you into all truth}” 
that is, according to this translation, “ into ail truth whatsoever, into truth of 
all kinds very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the 
original, “into all the truth that is, “ into all evangelical truth, all truth 
necessary for you to know.” 

u Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?” it ought to be u the wheel,” used 
an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. The Ah 


as 

mighty hath 


particular purpo 
given reason to a man to be 


w „ light uiito him:” it should rather 

be, “ to man; 7 in general. “This day is solvation come to this house, for¬ 
asmuch as he also is the son of Abraham :” it ought to be, “a son of Abra- 

h »» a J 

am. 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use 
of the article, ami the excellence of the English language in this respect; 
which, Wy moans of its two articles, does most precisely determine the extent 
ol signification of common names. 


What is the nature of the articles ? 
What the article the ? 

'Ike, fire, ike, air, tht earth, and 
the Witler, are four elements 
( 1 .) of the philosophers/’ 

(i Reason was given to a man to 
control his passions.” 

We have within us an intelli¬ 
gent principle, distinct from 
. (2.) body and from matter. 

s A man is the noblest work of 
(3.) creation 


What does the article a determine? 

“ (4.) Wisest and best men some¬ 
times commit errors.” 

“ Beware ol' drunkenness : it im¬ 
pairs understanding ; wastes 
an estate ; ifestrcys a reputa¬ 
tion ; consumes the body ; and 
renders the'(5.) man.of the 
brightest parts the (5.) com¬ 
mon jest (6.) of the meanest 
clown.” 


(1 ) « Fire «* &c-“ the four,” &e ( 8 .) “ thj body.” ( 3 .) “ the 

ereatios 1 % 4. y 7V wtawt * (6.) Rule XV. 






SYNTAX. 


147 


“ He is a much better writer than 
a reader.” 

“ The K .ng has conferred on him 
the title of a duke.” 

“ There are some evils of life 
wliich equally affect prince 
and people.” 

“We must act our part with a 
constancy, though reward of 
our constancy be (1.) distant.” 

“We are placed here under a trial 
of our virtue.” 

“ The virtues like his are not 
easily acquired. Such quali¬ 
ties honor the nature of a 
man.” 


“ Purity has its seat in the heart, 
but extends its influence over 
so much of outward conduct, 
as to form the great and ma¬ 
terial part of a character.” 

“ The profligate man is seldom or 
never found to be the good 
husband, the good father, or 
the beneficent neighbor.” 

“True charity is not the meteor 
which occasionally glares, bi t 
the luminary which, in its 
orderly^ and regular course, 
dispenses benignant iufia- 
. ence.” 


1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by die use o< amis¬ 
sion of the article a. If I say, “ He behaved with a little reverence " my 
meaning is positive. If I say, “ He behaved with little reverence,” my cann¬ 
ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be i rid in 
the same eases. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter ) dis¬ 
praise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful f* we 
-may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of num¬ 
ber.^ When 1 say, “ There were few men with him,” I speak diminu .veiy, 
Bud mean to represent them as inconsiderable : whereas, when I say, “ There 
vere a few men with him,” 1 evidently intend to make the most of them. 

What is the difference in meaning between the expression* “ We beeavctl 
with a little reverence,” and “ We behaved with little reverence” l 


“ He has been much censured for 
conducting himself with a lit¬ 
tle attention to In's business.” 

“ So bold a breach of order called 
for (2.) little seventy in pun¬ 
ishing the offender.” 

“ His error was accompanied with 
so little contrition and can¬ 
did acknowledgment, that he 
found a few persons to inter¬ 
cede for him.” 


1 . 

“There were so many mitigating 
(3.) circumstances attending 
his misconduct, particularly 
that (4.) of his open confes¬ 
sion, that he found (5.) few 
friends who were disposed to 
interest themselves in his fa¬ 
vor.” 

“ As his misfortunes were the 
fruit of his own obstinacy, a 
few persons pitied Aiim ” 


2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two 
words in the same construction; though the French , ever fail to repent it in 
this case.' “ There were many hours, both of the night hnd day, which he 
could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought.” tt migt l have been “ of 
the night and of the day.” And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repent the 
article in a series of epithets. “ He hoped that this title would secure him an 
ample and an independent authority.” 

Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same construction 7 

2 . 

“ The fear of shame, (fi.) the de- “ He was fired with desire of 
sire of approbation, prevent doing something, though he 

many bad actions.” knew not yet, with distinct- 

“ Jn this business he was influ- ness, either end or means.” 

enced by a just and (7.) gen¬ 
erous principle.” 

(t.) 464. (2.) “ a little.” (3.) 559. (4.) “ that circicwMtnnrc.’’Noto l.~ 

ltulo XIV. (5 ) “ a few.” 359. (f».) “ and the.” (7.) “ a gonorou*.” 




48 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


* 3 . In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the 

articles, which might he inserted with propriety in writing, especially in agr^ve 
style. “ At worst, time might he gained hy tnis expedient.’ “ At the worst ^ 
would have I ecu hotter in this place. “ Give me here John Baptist’s head.’ 
There would have been more dignity in saying, “Johnt/ie Baptist’s head j” 
or, “ 'I'he head of John the Baptist.” 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person hy 
an epithet. “ In the hisiorv of Henry the Fourth, hy Father Daniel, we are 
surprised at not finding him lhe great man.” “ 1 own J am often surprised that 
W sJiould have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman. ’ 

Tins article is often elegantly put, afler the manner of the Frencn, for the 
pronoun possessive ; as, “ He looks him full in the tare j” tliat is, “ in his 
lace.’’ " In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground j” 
that is, “ their foreheads.’' 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, 
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after 
the substantive. “ Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a 
commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries.” “ With such a specious title as that of blood, which, with 
the multitude, is always a claim the strongest, and the most easily compre¬ 
hended.” “ They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be re 
placed.” 

“ At worst, time might be gained,” Are. What word rr-xy properly bn, 
inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for it ? 

3. 

l( At worst 1 could but incur a “ At best., his gift was but a poor 
gentle reprimand.'’ * offering, when we consider 

x Ins estate.” 


nuiiS i- 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE X. 

The jtossessive case is governed hy the following noun. 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there is 
no variation of ease ; as, “ George, king of Great Britain, elector of Hano¬ 
ver,” &u\ ; ‘ l’ompey contended with Caesar, the greatest general of his 
time “ Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity.” Nouns thus 
circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition 
of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction j as, “ Potnpey 
contended ^ith ('a-Mir, who was die greatest general of his time.” Here the 
word freneial is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV. or Note 4, 
under Rule V 111 . 

The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the 
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be convened into the 
regular form of the possessive ease. We can say, “ the reward of virtue,” 
and “ virtue's reward but though it is proper to sav, “ a crown of gold,” 
we cannot convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, “ gold’s 
crown.” 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case ; as, 
“ Every .tree is known by its fruit“ Goodness brings its reward j” “ That 
desk is mine.'’' 

The genitive (1.) its is ofien improperly used for ’ tis or it is; as, 11 Its my 
hook instead of “It is my book.” 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be 
considered, hot as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per¬ 
sonal pronoun ; as, “ 'This composition is his.” “ Whose book is that V* 
“ His” If we used the noun itself, we should soy, “This composition is 


(1.) Or possessive. 




SYNTAX. 


149 


John's.” u Whose book is that ?” 11 Eliza's.” The position will be still m'Wft 
evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sentences 
must have a similar construction : “ Is it her or his honor that is tarnished V’ 
“ it is not hers , but his.” 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive cose stands alone, 
the latter one by which it is governed being understood; as, “ 1 called at the 
bookseller’s,” that is, “at the bookseller’s shop.” 

“ Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity.” What is said of 
the nouns religion, and support, in respect to each other ? When is the prep¬ 
osition of joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case ? Clive an 
example. 


“ My ancestors virtue is not 
mine. ’ ( 1 .) 

“ IIis hrofhers offence will not 
condemn him.” 

‘ I will not destroy the city for 
ten sake.” 

* Nevertheless, Asa his heart (2.) 
was perfect with the Lord.” 


“ A mothers tenderness, and a 
fathers care are natures gills 
for mans advantage.” 

“ A mans manners’ frequently in 
fluence his fortune.” 

“ Wisdoms precepts’ form the 
good mans interest and hap¬ 
piness.” 


u They slew Varus, he that was 
mentioned before.” 


“ They slew Varus, who was him 
that I mentioned before.” 


1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3.) case, the apostrophe 
with s is annexed to the last, ami understood to the rest; as, “ John ami Eli¬ 
za’s books “ This was my father, mother and uncle’s advice.” Rut when 
any words intervene, perhaps oil account of the increased pause, the sign of 
ti.e possessive should be annexed to each 5 as, “'I hey are John’s as well as 
Eliza’s books“ I had the physician's, the surgeon’s and the apothecary’s 
assistance.” 

“John's and Eliza's books.” Will you correct this sentence, and give the 
Rule for it ? 

1 . 

« It was the men's, (4.) teamen's “ This measure gained the king, 


(.■).) and children’s lot to suf¬ 
fer great calamities.” 

“ Peter's, John's and Andrew’s 
occuoation. was that of fish- 


as well as the people’s appro¬ 
bation.” 

u Not only the counsel's and at 
tornev’s but the judge’s opin¬ 
ion also, favored his cause.” 


ermen. 

2 In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe re 



made to the witness questions 


But in cases which would give too much 
of the hissiii"- sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, tin; omission 
takes place even in prose ; as, “ For righteousness’ sake}” “ For conscience’ 


sake. 


Is the additional s ever omitted ? Live an example. 


«» 


« And he cast himself down at 
Jesus feet.” 

« Moses rod was turned into a 
nerpent.” 

“ For Herodins sake, his brother 
Philips wife.” 


“ If ye suffer for righteousness's 
sake, happy are ye.” 

« Ye should be subject for con 
science # sake.” 


II.) itulftl. (2.) Asa's hen ft.” (3.) Or possessive. (4.) “ Men ’ is here 
in thej po^soswive ciu*o, tlifl apoatropho lining understood} therefore apply Rule I 
/;>.) " J\len, women or, “ It was the lot of,” fire. 

' 13 * 








150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a 
genitive case and die wor<i which usually follows it ; as, “ She began to exto. 
the farmer s, as she called him, excellent understanding-.” It ought to be 
“ the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him.” 

“ She began to extol the farmer’s, as she called him, excellent understand¬ 
ing.” Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ? 

3. 

« They very pistly condemned “ They implicitly obeyed the pro- 
the prodigal s, as he was call- tector’s, as they called him 

ed, senseless and extravagant imperious mandates.” 

conduct.” (1.) 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or 
of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory ot the oth- 
»r, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of die genitive case 
should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, 
some would say, “ 1 left the parcel at Smith's die bookseller;” others. “ at 
Smith the bookseller’s;” and perhaps others, “at Smith’s the bookseller’s.’' 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the 
addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious; 
as, “ 1 left the parcel at Smith’s, the bookseller and stationer.” Rut as this 
subject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to the learn¬ 
ers, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which die words are so connected and dependent, as to admit 
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires die genitive sign at or 
near the end of the phrase ; as, “ Whose prerogative is it ?” “ It is the king 
of Great Britain’s;” “Thai is the duke of Bridgewater’s canal;” “The 
bishop of Landaff’s excellent book ;” “ The Lord Mayor of London’s author¬ 
ity ;” “ The captain of the guard’s house.” 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems 
nei) most agreeable to our idiom, to give die sign of the genitive a similar sit- 
u a lion ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed ; as, 
“ The emperor Leopold’s ;” “ Dionysius the tyrant's “ For David my ser¬ 
vant’s sake ;” “ Give me John the baptist’s head ;’’ “ Raid the apostle’s ad¬ 
vice.” But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed ; 
and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears to be requi¬ 
site that the sign should he applied to the first genitive, and understood to thf 
other; as, “1 reside at lord Stormont’s, my old patron and benefactor;’’ 
“ Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar's, the greatest genera 1 
of antiquity.” In the following sentences, it would he very awkward to place 
die sign either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
alone : “ These psalms are David’s, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jew¬ 
ish people ;” “ We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, die ornament of his coun¬ 
try, and the friend of every virtue.” 'Fite sign of the genitive case may verv 
properly be understood at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the laftei 
part of sentences being a common construction in our language; as the learn¬ 
er will see by one or two examples : “ They wished to submit, but he die 
not ;” that is, “ be did not wish to submit .” “ He said it was their concern 
but not his;” that is, “ not his concern. 1 ’ 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, wc 
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that die connecting circum¬ 
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable ; as 
“ Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general ot 
antiquity’s “These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the 
Jewish people’s.” It is much better to say, “ This is Paul’s ad\ ice, the Chris¬ 
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles.” than “ This is Raul the Christiar 
hqro, and great apostle of the gentiles’ advice.” On the other hand, the ap¬ 
plication of the genitive sign to both or ail of the nouns in apposition, woulc 
be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect; as 
“ 'llie emperor's Leopold’s ;” “ King’s George's ;” “Charles’s the Second’s 

(1.) “ the senseless,” &c.-“ of the prodigal, as he was called .” 



SYNTAX. 


151 


\ 


44 The parcel was left at Smithes the bookseller’s and stationer’s.” The rales 
which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the inconvenience of 
both these modes of expression ; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, 
and consistent with the idiom of the langruase. 

CT <J 

Which is most agreeable to the English idiom, to sav. “ Smith’s the book¬ 
seller,” or “ Smith the bookseller’s ” ? When the words are connected and 
dependent, where is the genitive (1.) sign to be placed ? 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where 
should the sign of the genitive b« placed ? What effect is perceived if we 
annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen¬ 
tence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive sign 
to both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example. 


4. 

u l bought the knives at John¬ 
son’s (tj.) the cutler's." (3.) 

“ The silk w?ts purchased at 
Brown’s the mercer’s and 
haberdasher'; y. ’' 

' * Lord Fevers ham the general’s 
tent.” (4.) 

“ This palace had been the grand 
sa I tan's Mahomet's.” 


“ I will not for David's t.hyfat.h- 
er’ssake.” 

“ He took refuge at the governor, 
the king’s representative’s.” 

“Whose (5.) works are these? 
They are Cicero, the most 
eloquent of men’s.” 


5. The English^genilive has often an unpleasant sound; so that we daily 
make more use of the particle of, to express'the same .relation. There is 
something awkward in the following sentences, iir which this method has not 
been taken : “ The general, in the army’s name, published a declaration 
“ The commons’ vote “ The lords' house ;” “ Unless he is very ignorant 
of the kingdom’s condition.” It were certainly better to sav, “ In the name 
of the army “ The votes of the commons“The house of lords;’’ “The 
condition of the kingdom.” It is also father harsh to use two English geni¬ 
tives with the same substantive; as, “ Whom he acquainted with the pope’s 
and the king’s pleasure.” “ The pleasure of the pope and the king,” would 
have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, 
and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them ; as, “ The se¬ 
verity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation;” but this 
mode of expression is n<»t to be recommended. It would be better to sav. 
‘ The severe distress of the king’s sen touched the nation. We have a 
striking instance of this laborious mode of-expression, in the following sen¬ 
tence : “ Of some of the books of each of these classes of literature, a cata¬ 
logue will be given at lite end of the work.” 

“ In the army’s name.” How may this expression be altered for the bet¬ 
ter ? 


5. 


“ The world’s government is not 
lefl to chance.” ((>.) 

“ She married my son’s wife’s 
brother.” (7.) 

“ This is my wife’s brother’s part¬ 
ner’s house.” (8.) 


“ It. was necessary to have both 
the physic in n s . and the sur¬ 
geon's advice.” (9.) 

The extent of the prerogative 
of the king of England is suf¬ 
ficiently ascertained.” 


a 


ft. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the prepositron 
of - aSt '« Jt is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton’s.” Sometimes, indeed, un¬ 
less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces¬ 
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict- 

(1.) Or possessive. f2.) “Johnson’s shop.” Rule I. O-) “ culler.” See 

Note I. under this Rule. (4.) “ The tent of lord,” fee. (•">•) 431. Jfi.) ‘ The 
government of the world.” (7.) the brother of my son’s fife. (f.) flus 

house belongs to the partner of my wife ’*■ brother.” (ft-) ‘ the advice both of. 





352 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


1 y so called, which is tne most important of the relations expressed by tne 
genitive case ; for the expressions, “This picture of my friend,” and “ 1 his 
picture of my friend’s,” suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that 
of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed 
in a better manner, by saying, “ This picture, belonging to my friend. 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary 
to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit¬ 
ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases 
which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In 
the, expressions, “ A subject of the emperor’s “ A sentiment of my broth¬ 
er’s more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to 
the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily 
supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be 
used 5 as. “ This house of the governor is very commodious 5 ” “ The crown 
of the king was stolen j” “ That privilege of the scholar was never abused.” 
Hut, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, so.mc 
grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, 
and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

" Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the 
proposition of? Give an example. Is Uks double genitive ever omitted ? 

6 . 

That picture of the king's does u This estate of the corporation's 
not much resemble(1.) him.” is much encumbered.” 

“ These pictures of the king (2.) 11 That is the eldest son of the 

were sent to him from Italy.” king of England’s.” 


7. When an entire clause o r a sentence, beginning with a participle of the 
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, 
the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case: thus, instead 
of saying, “ What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hasti¬ 
ly ?” that, is, “ What is the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so 
hastily ?” we may say, and perhaps ought to say, “ What is the reason of 
this person’s dismissing of his servant so hastily f” just as we say, “ What 
is the reason of this person’s hasty dismission of his servant ?” So also we 
say, “ I remember it being reckoned a grsat explok 5 ” or, more properly, u \ 
remember its being reckoned,” »fec. The following sentence is correct and 
propo>‘ “ Much will depend on the pupil's composing, but mftre on his read¬ 
ing frequently.” It would not be accurate to say, “Much will depend on the 
pupil composing,” Sz c. We also properly say*, “ This will be the effect of 
the pupil's composing frequently j” instead of “ of the. pupil composing fre» 
quently.” 

“ Whatis the reason of tins person dismissing his servant so hastily?” 
Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it? 


7. 

“ What. (3.) can be the cause of 
the parliament neglecting so 
important a business.” 

“ Much depends on this rule being 
observed.” 

“ The time of William making 
the experiment, at length ar¬ 
rived.” 

li It is very probable that this as¬ 
sembly was called, to clear 
some doubt which the king 
had about the lawfulness of 


the Hollanders their throwing 
off the monarchy of Spain, 
and their withdrawing entire¬ 
ly their allegiance to that 
crown. ’ 

“ If we alter the situation of any 
of the words, we shall pres¬ 
ently he sensible of the melo¬ 
dy suffering.” " 

u Such will ever be the effect of 
youth associating with vicious 
companions.” 


(1.) 586. (2.) Or, “ These pictures belonging to the king,” &c. (3.) R 11 I 0 XV 





SYNTAX. 


153 


v RULE VIII. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar 
RULE XI. 

Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before 
the verb; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active $ 
and it is the order that detersiunes the case in nouns; as, “ Alexander con¬ 
quered the Persians.” But the -pronoun , having a proper form for each of 
those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the 
verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb 5 as, 
“ Whom 't jpiorantly worship, him declare. I unto you.” 

This pv*ution of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and gov¬ 
ernment to be neglected ; as in the following instances : u Who should 1 es¬ 
teem more than the wise and good ?” “ By the character of those who you 

choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed.” “ Those are the 
persons who he thought true to his interests.” “ Who should 1 see the other 
day but my old friend/” “ Whosoever the court favors.” In all these places, 
it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the 
verbs esteem, choose, thought, foe. u He, who, under all proper circum¬ 
stances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend it should be. 
u hint who,” &c. y 

Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro¬ 
nouns. “ He sleeps ,” “ they muse ,” foe., ore not transitive. They are, there¬ 
fore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an action. 
But when this case, or an object of'actiou, comes after such verbs, though it 
may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a 
preposition or some other word understood ; as, “ He resided many years 
[that is, for or during many vears] in that street;” •“ He rode several miles 
[that is, for or through tire space of several miles] on that day ;” u He lav 
an hour [that is, during an hour] in great tortured’ I 11 the phrases, “ To 
dream a dream,” “ To live a virtuous life,” “ To run a race,” u To walk the 
horse,” “ To dance the child,” the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, 
and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs! 

How is the nominative case usually known in English ? How the objec¬ 
tive ? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pfonouns ? In the phrase, “ He 
.resided manv years in that street.” how do yon-parse years? When verbs 
'naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may tfiey then be called 1 

“ Tkey who opulence has made “ She that is idle and mischievous, 

reprove sharply.” 
u Who did they send to him on" 
so important an errand ?•’ 

“ Tiiat is the friend (4.) who you 
, must receive cordially, and 
who you cannot esteem too 
highly.” 

11 He invited my brother and I to 
see and examine (3.) his li 
brary.” 

11 He who committed the offence, 
yon should correct, not I, who 
am innocent.” 

a We should fear and obey the 
Author of our being, even He 
who has power to reward or 
punish us forever. 

“ They who He had most (5.) in¬ 
jured, he had the greatest 
reason to love.” 


proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, cannot relish the 
simple pleasures of nature 
tl You have reason to dread his 
wrath, which one day (1.) 
will destroy ye both.” 

H Who have I reason to love so (2.) 
. much (2.) as this friend (3.} of 
my youth ?” 

il Ye, who were dead, hath he 
quickened.” 

Who did they entertain so free¬ 
ly?” 

11 The man who lie raised from 
obscurity, is dead ” 

“ Ye only have I known of all the 
families of the earth.” 

He and they we know, but who 
(4.) are you ?” 


(3.) Rule XL (4.) Rule XV. (5.) 678. 


(1.) Rule XXII. (2.j Adverb. 





154 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


1. Sonic writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if 

they were transitive, putting alter them the objective case, agreeably to the 
French construction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom is so foreign to the 
idiom of the English longue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The 
following are some instances of this practice : u Repenting him of his design. 
u The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous 
enemies.” u The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub¬ 
ject / 7 u The nearer his successes approached him to the throne. 77 u Go,Jiec 
thee away into the land of Judah . 77 u \ think it by no means a fit and decent 
thing to vie charities , 77 &e. “ They have spent their whole time and pains to 

agree the sacred with the profane chronology . 77 

u Repenting him of his design.” Will you repeat the note which shows 
this sentence to be-incorrect l 

1 . 

u Though he now takes pleasure before him, the humbler he 
in them, he will one day (1.) grew.” 

repent him (2.) of indulgences “ It will be very difficult to agree 
so unwarrantable/’ his conduct with (3.) the prin- 

u The nearer his virtues approach- ciples lie professes/’ 
ed him to the great example 

2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or in¬ 

transitive; as, “I must premise with three circumstances; 77 “ Those who 
think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me/ 7 ^ 

u I must premise with three circumstances.” Will you correct this sen¬ 
tence, and give the rule for it ? 

2 # 

li To -ingratiate (4.) with some by u I shall prerrjise with two or 
traducing others, marks abase three general observations.” 

and despicable mind.” 


3. The neuter verb (5.) is varied like the active ; but, having, in some de¬ 
gree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, 
retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort 
cf motion, or change of place or condition ; as, “ 1 am come“ I was gone 
u 1 am grown;” “ I was fallen.” The following examples, however appear 
to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active 
one : “ The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely swerved 
il The whole obligation of that law and covenant was also r eased” Whose 

number was now amounted to three hundred.” u This mareschal, upon some 
discontent, was-entered into a conspiracy against his master.” 11 At the end 
of n campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed.” It should be, “ have 
swerved,” “ had ceased,”' &c. t 

11 1 am come.” Why should not this be 11 1 have come” ? ^ 


3. 

11 If such maxims and such prac¬ 
tices (0.) prevail, what has 
(7.) heroine of decency and 
virtue ?” 

lt I have, come, according to the 
time proposed; but I have 
fallen upon an evil hour.” 


“ The mighty rivals arc now at 
length agreed.” 

“ The influence of his corrupt 
example was (8.) then entire¬ 
ly ceased.” 

“ He was entered into the con¬ 
nection before the conse¬ 
quences were considered.” 


(I.) Rule XXlr. (2.) “ repent of.” (3.) “ to wake, - arrree with,” See 

(4.) “ ingratiate ourselves.” (5.) Ry venter and active, Mr. Murray hero means 
what in this work are sty. ed intransitive and transitive verbs. (6«) Rule XI 

'7.) “ is become.” , (6.) “ hud.” 





SYNTAX. 


15S 


Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
signifying the same thing, come together, they are put by appo¬ 
sition in the same case. 

IH7' The examples wh ich follow may be corrected by ihis Rule or the follow¬ 
ing Note. 


4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as 
that which next precedes it. “ I am he whom they invited.” “ It may be 
(or, it might have been) lie, but it cannot bo (or, could not have been) /.” “It. 
is impossible to bo they.” “ It seems to Ikivc been he who conducted himself 
so wisely.” “ It appeared to be she that transacted the business.” “ I un¬ 
derstood it to be him.” “ I believe it to have been them.” “ Wc at first took 
it to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she.” “ Ho is 
not the person who it seemed ho was.”’ “ He is really the person who he ap¬ 
peared to be.” “ She is not now the woman whom they represented her to 
have been.” “ Whom do you fancy hint to be By these examples, it ap¬ 
pears that this substantive verb has no government of case ; but serves, in all 
its forms, as a conductor to the cases 5 so that the two cases which, in the con¬ 
struction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. 
Perhaps this subject will bo more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that 
the words in the eases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to 
be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, “ 1 understood it to be 
him,” the words it and him arc in apposition ; that is, “ they refer to the same 
thing, and are in the same case.” 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the 
pronoun in a wrong case. “ It might lave been him, but there is no ptoof of 
it.” “ Though I was blamed, it could not have been me.” “ 1 saw one whom 
* took to be she.” ‘•'She is the person, who 1 understood it to have been.” 
“ Who do you think me to be ?” “ Whom do men say that 1 am ?” “ And 

whom think ye that 1 am 1” 

Passive verbs, which signify naming, &c., have the same case before and 
after them; as, “ He was called Ciesar;” “ She was named Penelope ■” 
‘ Homer is styled the prince of poets-,” ‘‘James was created a duke ;” “The 
general was sal u'id emperor j” “The professor was appointed tutor to the 
prince.” 

“ 1 am him whom they invited.” Will you correct this sentence, and give 
the rule for it ? 

4 . 


mu Weil may you be afraid ; it is 
him indeed.” 

I would act the same part, if I 
were kirn, (1.) or in his situa¬ 
tion.” 

‘Search the » Scriptures, for in 

- them ye think ye have eternal 
life ; and they are them which 
testify of me.” 

1 Be composed: it is me: you 
have no cause for fear.” 

‘ J cannot tell who has befriended 
me, unless it is him from 
whom I have received many 
benefits.” 

1 1 know not whether it were 


them (2.) who conducted the 
business ; but I am certain it 
.was not him.” 

“ He so much resembled my 
brother, that, at first sight, I 
took it to be he.” 

“ After all their professions, is it 
possible to 1)0 them ?” 

“It could not have been her, for 
she always behaves discreet¬ 
ly-” 

“ If it was not Jiim, who do you 
imagine it to have been ?” 

“ Who do you think him to be?” 

“ Whom do the people say that 

we are ?” 

£ 


* When the verb to be is understood , it has the same case, before and after it, as 
,h„u it i* expressed: as, “ Ho seems the loader of the party;” “He shall con- 
iiuie steward;” “They appointed me executor;” “I supposed him a man of 

.- 4 - ” 4 Nouns in uppo- 

may term 
Ilortonsius died a 









156 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


5. The auxiliary iet. governs the objective case ; as, “ Let him beware 
“ Let u-s judge candidly j” “ Let them not presume ;” u Let George study his 
leSson.” * 

Let us judge candidly.” In what case ii us ? What is the rule ? 

5. 

“ Whatever (1.) others do, let (2.) “ Let them and we unite to op- 

thoii and / act wisely.” pose tins growing (3.) evil.’ 


IUJLS XII. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 


ROLE XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs , partici¬ 
ples , adjectives , nouns and pronouns. 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some¬ 
times properly omitted ; as, “ I heard hint say it$” instead of “ to say it.” 

'Die verbs which have Commonly other verbs following them, in the infini¬ 
tive mood, without the sign to, are, hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, gel, and 
also let. not used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others ; as, “ 1 bade him 
do it “ Ye dare not do itj” u I saw him do itj” “ I heard him say it ;” 


u Thou fittest turn go. 

Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbfc in the infinitive 


mood after them, without the sign to l 
“ It is better (4.) live on a lit¬ 
tle, (5.) titan outlive a good 
deal.” 

You ought not walk too hastily.” 
u j wish him not wrestle with 
his happiness.” 




“ i need not to solicit him to do a 
kind action.” x 

“ 1 dare not to proceed so hastily, 
lest 1 should give offence.” 
il I have seen some young persons 
to conduct themselves very 
discreetly.” 

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, 
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and /tin proper : “ \ 
have'observed some satirists to use,” &c. “ To see so many to make so litile 

conscience of so great a sin.” “ It cannot but be a delightful spectacle u> God 
and angels, to see a voting person, besieged by powerful temptations on every 
side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resohdely to hold out against the most 
violent assaults •, to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is 
courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities 
of the world, to reject all these, ami to cleave steadfastly unto God.” 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following offices : “ I am 
not like other men, to envy the talents 1 cannot reach.” “ Grammarians have 
denied, or at least doubted, them to he genuine.” “ That ail our doings may 
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight.” 
The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and parti 


ciples ; a>. “ He is eager to learn “ She is worthy to be loved “ They 


have a desire to improve ;” “ Endeavoring to persuade.’ 

The infinitive mood-lias. much of the nature of a substantive, expressing the 
action itself which the verb signifies, as tiie participle has the nature of «*it ad¬ 
jective. Thus t>e infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in different 
cases :—in the h*nvi»itive ; as. “ 'f'o phiu is pleasant —in the objective ; as 
“ Boys love to plan ;” “ For to will is present with me ; but to perform that 
which is good, l find not.” ' 

Tiie infmitivepnood is often made absolute, or used independently on the 
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the po¬ 
tential mood ; as, “ To confess the truth, 1 was in fault ;” “ To begin with 
the first j” “ To proceed j” “ To conclude — that is, “ That I may confess,” 


Arc. 


(1,) Rule VIII. 


(2.) liup. Rule VI. (3.) 559. 

(5.; Noun. 


'4.) “ tu live.” Rule XII 







157 


% 


SYNTAX. 

“ I have observed some satirists to use,” &c. What is incorrect in this 
sentence 1 

In the expression, “ He is-eager to learn,” n il] you parse to learn ? What 
is the rule ! (1.) “ To play is pleasant.”- Will you parse to )>laij, and give 

a rule for it ? (1.) “ To confess the truth, I was in luult.” How is lo con~ 

fens parsed l VVliat is the rule lor it l (2.) 

1 . 

are courted by health and 
pleasure, to resist all the 
allurements of vice, and to 
steadily pursue virtue and 
knowledge, is cheering and 
delightful to every good 
mind.” 

“ They acted with so much re¬ 
serve 1 , that some persons 
doubted them to 6c sincere .” 
(~-) 

u And the multitude wondered, 
* when they saw the lame to 
walk, and the blind to see.” 
(«•) 

KUIY8 XXT7I. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE XIII. y 

In the u\e of words and phrases which , in point of time , 
relate to each other , a due regard: to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, “ The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away,” we 
should say, u The Lord gave, and the Lord hath 
taken away.” Instead of, u I remember the family 
- more than twenty years,” it should be, “ I have re¬ 
membered the family more than twenty years.” 

It i* not easy to give particular jrules for the management of the moods ana 
tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they niay be proper and 
consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one—“ To 
observe what the sense necessarily requires / 7 It may, however, be of use to 
give a tew examples of irregular construction. “ The last week I intended 
to have written; 7 / is a very common phrase; the infinitive being in the past 
time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for how 
| 01J ir soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then present to 
me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back that time, and 
the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be. “ Thd last week I intended to 
Write ” The following sentences are also erroneous : u 1 cannot excuse the 
reuHssness of those whose business it should have been, as it certainly was 
their interest, to hare interposed their good offices / 7 “ There were two cir¬ 
cumstances which made it necessary for them to hare lost no time.” ** Histo- 
rv painters would have found it difficult to hare invented such a species of be¬ 
ings / 7 They ought to be, to interpose, to lose, to invent. * u On the morrow, 
because he would have known the certainty wherefore he was accused of the 
Jews, he loosed him / 7 It ought to be, “ because he would know” or. rather, 
u being willing; to know” u The blind man said unto him. ford, that I might 

(f.) Rule Xti. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (X) For tu maintain read maintain 
(4.) “who.” (5.) “they.” - (6.) Note XIII. fi.) “ their sineerity.” 

{b.) “ person* who hod been lame walking; and those who had been blind , seeing ” 


sii It is a great support to virtue, 
when we see a*good mind to 
maintain (3.) its patience and 
tranquillity,under injuries and 
affliction, and to cordially for¬ 
give its oppressors/’ 
u It is the difference of their con¬ 
duct,'which makes us to ap¬ 
prove the one, and to reject 
the other.” 

u We should not be like many 
persons, to (4.) depreciate the 
virtues wc (5.) do not pos¬ 
sess.” 

“ To see (C.) young persons who 




4 


358 ENGLISH- GRAMMAR. 


receive my sight.” u If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of 
the dead.” May, in both places, would have been better. “ From his bibli¬ 
cal knowledge, he appears 10 study the Scriptures with great attention “ to 
/lave studied/’ &c. “ 1 feared that 1 should lm\e lost it, before I arrived at 

the city “ shout'd lose it." “ I had rather walk ;” it should be, “ I would 
rather walk.” “ (t would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform 
it;” it should be, “ if I could have performed it j” or, “ It would afford me no 
satisfaction, if I could perform it.” 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the 
subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a fu¬ 
ture sense ; and tiiat the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, 
are used to express the present or future, as well as the past. 


u I intended to have written.” Wil 

sentence, and give a rule for it 1 

u The next new year's day I shall 
he ( 1 .) at school three years.” 

** And he that tons dead (2.) sat 
up, and began to speak.” 

u 1 should be obliged to him, if 
be will gratify me in that 
particular.” 

u And the multitude wondered, 
when they saw the dumb to 
speak, the maimed to be whole, 
the lame walk, and the blind 
seeing.” (3.) 

“ I have compassion on the mul¬ 
titude, because they continue 
with me now three days.” 

li In the treasury belonging to the 
cathedral in this city is pre¬ 
served (4.) with the greatest 
veneration, for upwards of six 
hundred years, a dish which 
they pretend to be made of 
emerald.” 

** The court of Rome gladly laid 


you point out the incorrectness of this 

hold on all the opportunities, 
which the imprudence, weak¬ 
ness, or necessities of princes 
afford it, to extend its author 
ity ” 

u Fierce as he moved , his silver 
shafts resound.” 

“ They maintained that scripture 
conclusion, that all mankind 
ripe from o~e head. 

u John will earn his wages when 
his service is completed.” 

“ Ye will not come unto me that 
ye might have life?’ x 

“ Be that as it icill , he cannot 
justify his conduct.” 

11 I have been at London a year, 
and seen the king last sum¬ 
mer.” 

“ After we visited London, we 
returned, content and thank¬ 
ful, to our retired and peace¬ 
ful habitation.” 


I. -Tt is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood, in the 
following form— to write, to be writing, and to be written —always denote some¬ 
thing contemporary with the time of the governing vero, or subsequent to it; 
but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows —to have been writing, to 
have written, and to have been written —they always denote something atitece 
dent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought, to be of im 
portanre ; for, if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, he sufficient to direct 
us in the relative application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : “ I found 
him belter than I expected to find him.” “ Expected to have found him,” is 
irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of 
hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the pres¬ 
ent, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive an er¬ 
ror in this expression—“ It is long since I commanded lum to have done it 
yet “ expected to have found,” is no better. It is as clear that the finding 
must be posterier to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to 
the command. 

In tne sertence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect 
tense of the infinitive mood : “ It would have afforded me great pleasure, as 


(1.) “ shall hurt been.” (2.) “ had been dead.” (3.) See the last example under 
tbo preceding Rule. (4.) “ a dish has been preserved.” 



SYNTAX. 


159 


often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence-’* 
As the message,. this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not con¬ 
temporary ;wiih it, the verb expressive of the message must denote tin*. ante¬ 
cedence, by being i a liie perfect of the infinitive. If the message and the 
pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, die subsequent verb would, 
with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive; as, “ It 
would have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of suety intelli 
gence.” In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these 
words — u If 1 had been the messenger;” in the latter instance, to this expres¬ 
sion — u liein^ the messenger.” 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time 
with the defective verb ought , the perfect of the infinitive must always be 
used ; as, “ He ought to have done it.” When we use this verb, this is the 
only possible way to distinguish the past from the present. - 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce tho 
sentiments of eminent grammarians ; amongst whom are Lowtli and Camp¬ 
bell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain, that 
the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb 
which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted, in the 
instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a sim¬ 
ilar nature ; yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in winch the thing 
referred to preceded tl.e governing* verb, it would be proper and allowable. 
We may say, t; Fiom a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have 
studied Homer with great care and judgment.” It would be proper also to 
sav, “ From his conversation, he appears to have studied Homer with great 
care and judgment;” u That unhappy man is supposed to have died by vio¬ 
lence.” These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but they con¬ 
firm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks 
what is called tiie absolute time ; the tense oi the verb governed marks solely 
its relative time with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writenado, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no 
tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past and future, is inconsistent with 
just grammatical view’s of the subject. That these verbs associate with verbs 
m all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their ow n. 
Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or fu¬ 
ture, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its 
time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, af¬ 
ter, or the "same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thu-tg sig¬ 
nified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with the tiling 
denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, that 
tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from 
which they are computed, is of no consequence; since present, past, and lu- 
ture, are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that, 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the governing 
verb, yet there are particular cases m which it would be better to give the ex¬ 
pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, u I wish to have written 
to him sooner,” u I then wished to have written to him sooner,” “ He vvili one 
day wish to have written sooner;” it would be more perspicuous and forcible, 
as well as more agreeable to the practice of good w riters, to say, u 1 wish that 
I had written to him sooner,” “ I then wished that I had written to him soon¬ 
er,” u He will one day wish that he had written sooner.” Should the justiTbss 
of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous occasions for the 
use of the past infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples: “ It would 
ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to have found him wise and 
virtuous.” u To have deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualifi¬ 
ed him for repenting at all.” u They w ill then see, that to have faithfully 
performed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation.” 

u I expected to have found him.” Will you correct this sentence, and give 
a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time 
with the defective verb ought? Give an example. Is it proper ever to use 
the perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb ? Give an example. 



ICO 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


( I purpose to go to London in a 
few months, and after 1 shall 
finish (I.) my business there, 
to proceed (2.) to America.” 

TJiese prosecutions of William 
seem to he the most iniquitous 
measures pursued by the 
court during the time that 
the use of parliaments was 
suspended.” 

From the little conversation I 
had with him. he appeared to 
It tree heat a man of letters.” 

I always intended to have re¬ 
warded my son according to 
his merit.” 

* It would, on reflection, have 
given me great, satisfaction, 
to relieve him from that dis¬ 
tressed situation.” 

u It required"so much care, that I 
thought I should have lost it 
before l reached home.” 

“ "We nave done no more than it 
was our duty to have done.” 

“He would have assisted one of 
his friends, if he could do it 
without injuring the other; 
but as that could not have 
hern done, he avoided all in¬ 
terference.’ 

“ Must it not he expertrd that he 
would have defended an au¬ 
thority, which had been so 


long exercised without con¬ 
troversy ?” (3.) 

“ These enemies of Christianity 
were confounded, whilst they 
were expecting to have found 
an opportunity to have be¬ 
trayed its author.” 

“ His sea-sickness was so great, 
that J often feared he would 
have died before our arrival.” 

“ If these persons had intended 
to deceive, they would have 
taken care to have avoided 
what would expose them to 
the objections of their oppo¬ 
nents.” ' 

“It was a pleasure to have re¬ 
ceived his approbation of my 
labors, for which I cordially 
thanked him.” 

“ It would have afforded me still 
greater pleasure, to receive his 
approbation at an earlier pe¬ 
riod ; but to receive (4.) it at 
all, reflected credit upon me.” 

“ To be censured by him, would 
soon have proved an insuper- 
ablc^discouragement.” 

“ Him portioned maids, appren¬ 
ticed orphans blest, 

The young who labor , and the 
old who rest." 

“ The doctor, in Ins lecture, said, 
that fever always produced 
' thirst.” 


RULE 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 
RULE XIV. 


Active participles from active transitive verbs govern 
the objective case. 


“ Esteeming (3.) theirselves wisg, 
they became fools.” 

“ Suspecting not only yc,but they 
a also, 1 was studious t.o avoid 
all intercourse.” 

“ I could not avoid considering, 
((>.) in some degree, they a3 


enemies to me; and lie as a 
suspicious friend.” 

“ From having exposed (7.) hisself 
too freely, in different cli- 
matesj he entirely lost his 
health.” 


1. Participles arc sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti¬ 
ciple, with die definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and must 
have the preposition of after :t ; as, “ These are the rules of grammar, by the 
observing of which, you may avoid mistakes.” It would not be proper to 


il.) “ .ill til I htirr Jiiiishrtl .” (2.) Rule IX. (’A.) “ Might it not have b*en y n 6c. c 

(4.) “ to have received ” Note XIII. (5.) Rule XIII. (6.) Rule VIII- (7)561. 





SYNTAX. 


1C1 


say, 11 bj the observing which,” nor, u by observing of which 3 ” but the 
phrase, w thout either article or preposition, would be right 3 as, “ by observ¬ 
ing whici.” The article a or an has the same effect 5 as, “ Tiis was a be¬ 
traying of the trust reposed in him.” 

rins ruie arfses from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as 
plain a principle as any on which it is founded 3 namely, that a word which 
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a 
noun ; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to 
have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of 
words, that is apt to deceive us,*and make us treat them as if they were of an 
amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : u He was 
sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentancej” it ought to bo, “ by (he 
preaching of repentance,” or. “ by preaching repentance.” “ By the contin¬ 
ual mortifying our corrupt affections 3 ” it should be, “ by the continual morti¬ 
fying off or, “ by continually mortifying our corrupt affections.” “ Th«#y 
laid out themselves towards the advancing* and promoting the good of it 3 ” 
4t towards advancing and promoting the good;” ii It is an overvaluing our¬ 
selves, to reduce every tiling to the narrow measure of our capacities 3 ” “ it is 
overvaluing ourselves,T or, u an overvaluing of ourselves.” u Keeping of 
one day in seven,” &c.; it ought to be, “ the keeping of one day,” or, “ keep¬ 
ing one day.” 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos¬ 
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same 
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and 
preposition. u He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philos¬ 
opher,” is capable of a different sense from, a He expressed the pleasure he 
had in hearing the philosopher.” When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of 
harmony or variety, t<r substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we 
should previously cous.der whether they axe periectiy similar hi the sentiments 
they convey. 

u By the observing of which.” Will you parse observing ? Rule for it ? 
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety 1 WcuJd it be 
proper to omit one of them only ? 


“ By observing of truth, you will 
command esteem, as well as 
secure peace.” 

4 He prepared them for this event, 
by lhe sending to them proper 
inlormatkm.” 

* A person may be great or rich 
by chance 3 but cannot be wise 
or good without the taking 
pains for it.” 

4 Nothing could have made her 
so unhappy, as the marrying 
'a man who possessed such 
principles.” 

44 The changing times and seasons, 
the removing and setting up 
kinors, belong to Providence 
alone. 

<• The middle station of life seems 
to be the most advantageously 


situated for gaining of wis¬ 
dom. Poverty turns our 
thoughts too much upon the 
supplying our wants; and 
riches upon the enjoying our 
superiiuities.” 

“ Pliny, speaking of Cato the 
Censor's disapproving the 
Grecian orators, expressed 
himself thus.” 

“ Propriety of pronunciation is? 
the giving to every word that 
sound, which the most poh-te 
usage of the language appro 
priates to it.” 

“ The not attending (1.) to this 
rule, is the cause ( 2 .) of a 
very common error.” 

il This was in fact a converting 
the deposile to his own use. 


2. The same observations which lijwe been made respecting tiic effect of 
[jeTirticle and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and pnrtici 
Je, when they are similarly associated ; as, “ Much depends on their obaerv 


(1.) Rule VI 

14 * 


(2.) Rule XV. 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


IG2 


ing of llie rule. and error wilH>c the consequeitce of tlirir neglecting of it 
instead of “ their observing the rule, and their neglecting it/' We shall pi-r 
ceive this more dearly, if we substitute «f notin lor the pronoun ; as, “ Riud 
depends upon 'f'tjri/s observing of tlie rule,” &c. Rut, as this construction 
sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, he better to express the sentirnen 
in the following, or some other form : “ Much depends on the rule’s being ob¬ 
served; and error will be the conseqnence'on its being neglected :” or, “ or 
observing the rule ;” and. “ of neglecting it.” This remark may be appliec 
to several other modes of expression to be found in this work ; which, though 
they are contended lor ns strictly correct, are not always the most eligible, or 
account of their unpleasant sound. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following: “ In forming of 
his sentences, he was very exact ;” “ From calling of names, he proceeded 
to blows.” But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, like arti¬ 
cles and pronouns, convert The participle itself into tlie nature of a substan¬ 
tive; as we have shown above in the phrase, “ by observing which.” And 
yet the participle, with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase 
m the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un¬ 
derstood ; as, “ By promising much, and performing but tittle, we become 
despicable “ He studied to avoid expressi/ig himself too severely 

“ Much depends on their observing of the rule.” Would this sentence be 
correct if the preposition of were omitted ? Will you repeat the note ? 

2 . 


“ There will be no danger of their ing the directions, that we 
(!.) spoiling their faces, or of s lost our way.” 
their gaining converts.” “ In tracing of his history, we dis- 

“ For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of 
he is indebted to his friend’s imitation.” 

care.” “ By reading of books written by 

u It was from our misunderstand- the best authors, his mind 

became highly improved.” 

3. As llie perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different 
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is 
frequently said, “ He begun,” for “ he began ;” “ He run,” for “ he ran 
“ He d runk,” for “ he drank ;” the participle being here used instead of the 
imperfect tense : and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the 
participle ; as, “ 1 had wrote,” for I had written ;” “ I was chose,” lor “A 
was chosen.;” “ 1 have eat,” for “ I have eaten.” “ His words were inter¬ 
wove with sighs ;” “ were interu'oren. ,, “ He would have spoke '■‘spoken.” 
“ He hath bore witness to his faitllful servants “ borne.” “ By this means 
he overrun his guide ;” ‘'overran.” “The sun has rose;” “risen." “His 
constitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook bv 
such causes;” “. shaken,” in both places. “ They were verses wrote on 
Hass “ written.” “ Philosophers have oflen mistook the source of true 
happiness ;” it ought to be, Mistaken .” 

The participle ending in e/r is often improperly eonlraeted bv changing en 
into t; as, “ In good behavior he is not siirpast i>v any pupil of the school 
“ She was much distrust;” they ought to be,“ surpassed," “ distressed.” 

Is it correct to sav, “ He begun”? What is wrong in the expression 1 
Will you repeat Note 3 ? Can the participle ending in ea be contracted to t. 
with propriety ? 

3. 


" By too ea:?or pursuit, lie run a 
great risk of being disappoint¬ 
ed.” (2.) 

“ He had not long enjoyed repose, 
before he begun to be weary 
of having nothing to do.” 


“ Ho was greatly heated, and 
drunk with avidity.” 

“ Thou gh his conduct was, ir 
some respects, exceptionable 
yet he dared not commit sc 
great an offence as that w hi cl 
was proposed to him.” 


(1.) Omit “ their ” 


(2.) Pres. pass. part, used as a noun.— Rule X. 






SYNTAX. 


1G3 


“ A second deluge learning thus 
o’errun, 

And the monks finished what the 
Goths begun.” 

“ If some events had not fell out 
very unexpectedly, I should 
have been present.” 

u He would have went with us, 
had lie been invited.’' 

“ He returned the goods which 
he had stole, and made all the 
reparation in his power.” 

‘ They have chose the part of 
honor and virtue.” 

* His vices have weakened his 
mind, and broke his health.” 

He had mistook his true interest, 
and/ found himself forsook by 
his former adherents.” 

“ The bread that has been eat is 
soon forgot.” 

u No contentions have arose 
amongst them since their re¬ 
conciliation.” 

“ The cloth had no seam,but was 
wove throughout.” 

u The French language is spoke 


in every state in Europe.” 

“ His resolution was too strong 
to be shook by slight opposi¬ 
tion.” 

11 He was not much restrained 
afterwards, having took im¬ 
proper liberties at first.” 

“ He has not yet wore off the 
rough manners which he 
brought with him.” 

“ You who have forsook your 
friends, are entitled to no 
confidence.” 

u They who have bore a part in 
the labor, shall share the re¬ 
wards.” 

“ When the rules have been wan¬ 
tonly broke,there can be no 
plea for favor.” 

“ He writes as the best authors 
would have wrote, had they 
writ on the same subject.” 

“ He heapt up great riches, but 
past his time miserably.” 

u He talkt and stampt with such 
vehemence, that he was sus¬ 
pected to be insane.’ 


RTJXiE XXVII. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs , though they have no government of case , tense*, 
&fc., require an appropriate situation in the sentence , 
viz. for the most part , before adjectives , after verbs 
active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb : as, “ He made a very sensible dis¬ 
course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly , and was 
attentively heard, by the whole assembly.” 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
the rule. “ He must not expect to find study agreeable always “ always 
agreeable.” “ Wc always find them ready when we want them “ we find 
thrm always ready,” &c. “ Dissertations on the prophecies which have re¬ 

markably' been fulfilled j” “which have been remarkabhj.” “Instead of 
looking contemptuous! v down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
look up thankfully to Hod, who hath made us better;” “Instead of looking 
flown contemptuously, &o., we should thankfully look up,” & c. . “ If thou art 
blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it;” u naturally 
blessed,” Ac. “ exercise it continually.” 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it; sometimes between die two auxiliaries; and sometimes af¬ 
ter them both ; as in the following examples : “ Vice always creeps by de¬ 
crees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we 
are at last complete!]/ bound.” “ He encouraged the English barons to carry 
their opposition farther;” “ They compelled him. to declare that he would ab¬ 
jure the realm forever instead of, “ to carry farther their opposition ; and 


1G4 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


“ to abjure forever the realm.” “ He has generally been reckoned an hon¬ 
est man 5 ” “ The book may always be had at such a . preference 

to “has been generally,” and “may be always.” “Yiv’e mies will bo 
clearly undeistood, alter they have been diligently studied,” is prof ••! * to, 
“These rules will clearly be understood, after they have been 

studied.” 1 

From the preceding- remarks and examples, k appears that no exn i and 
determinate rule can be given for the ulacing of adveibs, on all oc< <>!.<. 
The general rule may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and p*. t . 1 - 

ity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the uom.nali o 
noun ; as, “ There is a person at the door “ There are some thieves in t s 
house ;” which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, “ A per- u 
is at the door ;” “ Some thieves are in the house.” Sometimes, it is made 
use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence ; as, “ There was a 
man sent from God, whose name was John.” When it is applied in its strict 
sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case ; as, “ The man 
stands there.” 

What word is misplaced in the sentence, “ He must not expect to find study 
agreeable always” ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule lor 
the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with respect 
to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? 


“ He was pleasing not often, (1.) 
because he was vain.” 

“ William nobly acted , though he 
was unsuccessful.” 

“ We may happily live, though 
our possessions are small.’ 

“ From whence (2.) we may date 
likewise the period of this 
event.” 

“ It cannot be impertinent or ri¬ 
diculous, therefore, to remon¬ 
strate.” 

“ He offered an apology, which 
not being admitted, he became 
submissive.” 

“ These things should be never 
separated.” 

“ Unless he have more govern¬ 
ment of himself, he will be 
always discontented.” 

“ jXeccr (3.) sovereign was (4.) so 
much beloved by the people.” 

“He was determined to invite 
back the big, and to call to¬ 
gether his friends.” 

11 So well educated a boy gives 


great hopes to his friends.” 

“ Not only he found her employ 
ed, but pleased and tranquil 
also.” 

“ We always should prefer our 
duty to our pleasure ” 

“ It is impossible continually to 
he at work.” 

“ The heavenly bodies are in mo¬ 
tion perpetually.” 

“ Having not known, or having 
not considered, tl e measures 
proposed, he failed of suc¬ 
cess.” 

“ My opinion was given on rather 
a, (5.) cursory perusal of the 
book.” , 

“ It is top common with mankind, 
to be engrossed, and over¬ 
come totally, by present 
events.” 

“ When the Romans were pressed 
with a foreign enemy, the 
women contributed all their 
rings and jewels voluntarily 
to assist the government.” 


1. The ud\erb never generally precedes the verb; as, “I never wa 
tnere ;” “ He never comes at a proper time.” When au auxiliary is used, it 
is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb ; as, “ He was neve, 
seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time.” Never seems. to be im¬ 
properly used hi the following passages : “ Ask me never so much dowry and 
gift.” “ If I make my hands never so clean.” “ Charm he never so wisely.' 
The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. 

(1 ) 11 not nj'ten pleasing.” (*2.) 589. (3.) “ (4t • iuereo 

) “ a rather.™ —Rule JX. 




\ 


SYNTAX. 


105 


How is (he adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb ? Give 
an example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used in¬ 
stead of ever. 

1 . 

<e They could not persuade him, “ If some persons’ opportunities 
though they were never so were never so favorable, they 
eloquent.” would be indolent to improve 

them.” 

2. Tn imitation of the French idiom, the "adverb of place where is often used 
instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. “ They framed a protesta¬ 
tion, where they repeated all their former claims;” i. e. “in which they re¬ 
peated.” “ The king was still determined to run forwards, in the sami?course 
where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced;” i. e. 
H in which he was.” But it would be better to avoid this mode of expression- 
The adverbs hence, thence, and ivlievce, imply a preposition ; for they signi¬ 
fy “ from this place,” “ from that place,” “ from what place.” It seems,, 
therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them,, 
because it is superfluous; as, “ This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of 
our age are said to borrow their weapons;” “ An ancient author prophesies 
from hence.” But. the origin of these words is little attended to, and the 
preposition from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of 
it. in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig¬ 
nifying motion, instead of'the adverbs hither , thither, whither; as, “ He came 
here hastily ;” “ They rode there with speed.” They should be, “ lie came 
hither ;” “ They rode thither ,” &c. 

“ They framed a protestation where they repeated all their former claims.” 
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2 1 

2 . 

“ He drew up a petition, where he “George is active; he walked 
too freely represented his own there in less than an hour.” 
merits.” (].) > 

“ His follies had reduced him to “ Where are you all going in such 
a situation where he had much haste?” 

to fear, and nothing to hope.” “ Whither have they been since 
“Jit is reported that the prince they left the city ?” 
will come here to-morrow.” 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : “In 
2687. he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun to 
increase m those countries a$^a religious order;” i. e. “since which time. 7 ' 
“A little while, and I shall not see you;” i. e. “a short time. 77 “ It is worth 

their while ;” i. e. “it deserves their time and pains.” But this use of the 

Word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
phrase,, “ To do a thing anyhow ;” i. e. “inanv manner:” or, “ somehow 
.. e. “in some manner.” ‘‘'Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are 
under the influence of prejudice.” 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 

3. 

“ Charles left the seminary too “ Nothing is better worth the 
early, since when he has while (3.) of young persons, 

made very little improve- than the acquisition of knowl- 

ment.” ( 2 .) edge and virtue.” 


tj.) Rule XXIJ. (2.) “ nrul from that time lie,” &c.; or, “ and has since made ,” ice. 
(3.) “ the time and attention of,” &cc. 



166 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


RULE XIX. 


Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 
lUJLE XVI. 

Two negatives , in the same simple sentence , are equiva¬ 
lent to an affirmative ; as, u Nor did they not per¬ 
ceive him i. e. “ They did perceive him.” 

It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative, than by two 
separate negatives, as in the former sentence; but when one of the negatives 
is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form a 
pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one; as 
in the following instances : 44 I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not 
now u nor shall 1 now.” 44 Never no imitator grew up to his author 
“ never did any,” &c. 44 1 cannot by no means allow him what his argument 

must prove 44 I cannot by any means,” &c. ; or, 44 I can by no means” 
*' Nor let no comforter approach me 44 nor let any comforter,” Sec. 44 Nor 
is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we common¬ 
ly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes ;” it should be ; 44 any more.” 
“ Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics 
44 Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more titan Raphael, was born in a 
republic.” 

Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, *>r by two separate 
negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives 1 


44 Neither riches nor honors, nor 
no suoh perishing goods, can 
satisfy the desires of an im¬ 
mortal spirit.” 

44 Be honest, nor take no shape 
nor semblance of disguise.” 

“We need not, nor (1.) do not,#, 
confine his operations to nar¬ 
row limits.” 

41 I am resolved not to comply 
with the proposal, neither at 
present, nor at any other 
time.” 

There cannot be nothing more 
insignificant than vanity.” 

4 Nothing never affected her so 
much, as this misconduct of 
her child.” 


44 Do not. interrupt me yourselves, 
nor let no one disturb my re¬ 
tirement.” 

44 These people do not judge wise¬ 
ly, nor take no j roper measure 
to effect their j urpose.” 

44 The measure is so exception¬ 
able, that we cannot by no 
means permit it.” 

44 I have received no information 
on the subject, neither from 
him nor from his friend.” 

44 Precept nor discipline is not so 
forcible as example.” 

44 The king nor the queen was 
not all deceived in the busi 
ness.” 


ITUIdES X. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case . 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of 
the objective : 44 Who servest thou under ?” 44 Who do you speak to V* 

44 We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to.” “ Who dost thou 
ask for ?” “ Associate wot with those who none can speak well of.” In all 

these places, it ought to be 44 whom.” 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro¬ 
nouns : as , 44 Give me the book ;” * 4 Get me some paper;” that is, 4 ‘ to me,” 


(I .) 44 and do.” 




SYNTAX. 


167 


"for me.” “ Wo is me 5 ” i. e. " to me.” " He was banished England •” 

l. e. “/rmn England.” , 6 ’ 

w Who do you speak to 7” Will yon correct this sentence, and explain 
why it is wrong ? " Give me the book.” What is understood in this sen¬ 

tence ? 


" We are ali accountable creatures, 
each for nisse/f.” 

"They willingly, and of theirselves, 
endeavored to make up the differ¬ 
ence.” 

" He laid the suspicion upon some¬ 
body, I know not who, in the 
company.” 

"I hope it is not I who ( 1 .) he is 
displeased with.” 

" To poor we, there is not much hope 
remaining.” 

" Does that boy know who he speaks 


to ? Who does he offer such 
language to ?” 

" It was not he that they were so 
angry with.” 

' " What concord can subsist between 
those who commit crimes, and 
they ( 2 .) who abhor them 7” 

"The person who I travelled with, 
has sold the horse which he rode 
on during our journey.” 

" It is not I he is engaged with.” 

" Who did he receive that intelligence 
from ?” 


1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs ; 
as, " Whom wilt thou give it to 7” instead of, “ To whom wilt thou give it V 
" He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;” " The world ig too po¬ 
lite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the hrst 
that inform them of.” This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in¬ 
clined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the fa¬ 
miliar style in wril%g : but the placing of the preposition before the relative is 
more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the 
solemn and elevated style. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? 

1 . 

" To have no one whom tve heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly 
wish well to, and whom we are : ndebted to.” 
warmly coreerned for, is a de¬ 
plorable state.” 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect 
different prepositions with the same noun ; as, “ To suppose the zodiac and 
planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves.” This, whether 
w the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should general¬ 
ly be avoided. In forms of law, and the kkc, where fulness and exactness 
of expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admit¬ 
ted. 

Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs ? 
When may it be admitted ? 

2 . 

"On these occasions, the pronoun is "They were refused entrance into, and 
governed by,( 3 .) and consequently forcibly driven from, the house.” 

agrees with, the preceding word.” 


3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different 
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus we 
snv, " To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house,” &e. We also 
sav, " Wo are-disappointed of a thing,” when we cannot get it, " and disap¬ 
pointed in it,” when we have it, and find it docs not answer our expectations. 
Rut two different prepositions must he improper in the same construction, and 
in the same sentence ; as, " The coinbat between thirty French against twenty 
English.” - ^ j 

In some cases, it : s difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the prefer¬ 
ence is to be give 1 ” So'h are used promiscuously, ami custom has not de- I 

ckled in fr.'-*>r <*f them. We say, " Expert at,” and “ Expert in a 

thing;” •• J ].'_/ miding a remedy for his mistakes ;” " Expert in decep¬ 
tion.” _ 

(I.) •• unlh whom.” (2.) “ thoH. (8.) “ by the preceding word, end wfatqiuntly agrtet unlh 






( 




168 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whfin prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same that 
are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived ; as, “ A compli¬ 
ance with,” “ to comply with “ A disposition tu tyranny,” “ disposed to 
tyrannize.” 

Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a dif¬ 
ferent preposition ? 

3. 

u VVe are often disappointed o/ - things, pany, but have always hitherto 

which, before possession, prom- been disappointed in that pleas- 

ised much enjoyment.” ure.” * 

u I have frequently desired their com- 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great impor¬ 
tance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in the 
application of this part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition q/1 “ He is resolved of going to the 

Persian court j” “ on going,” &.c. ‘"He was totally dependent of the Papal 
crown ;” “ on the Papal,” &c. “ To call of a person,” and “ to wail of him ;” 

“ on a person,” &.c. “ He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citi¬ 

zens ;” “ in recommending,” &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
inserted, after worthy; as, “ It is worthy observation,” or, “ of observation.” 
[But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences : “ Tlie em¬ 

ulation. who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, 
but o/'wlro should obtain the most lucrative command.” “The rain hath,been 
falling of a long time j” “ falling a long time.” •• It is station chiefly which 
decides of the fortune and characters of men;” “decides the fortune,” or, 
“ concerning the fortune,” “ He found the greatest difficulty of writing;” “ in 
writing.” “ It might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities.” A 
taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it, implies only 
a capacity for enjoyment. “ This had a much greater share of inciting him, 
than any. regard after his father’s commands“ snare in inciting,” anu “ re¬ 
gard to his father’s,” &c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. “You have bestowed 
your favors to the most deserving persons “ upon the most deserving,” Alc. 
“ He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch ;” “ of having betrayed.” 
“ His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;” "of/ that,” &,c. “ A great 

change to the better “ for the better.” “ Vour prejudice to mv cause;” 
“ against.” “ The English were very different people then to what they are 

at present;” "from what,” <fec. “ In compliance to the declaration ;” “with” 
<fcc. “ It is more than they thought for“ thought of.'’ “ There is no need 

for it ;” “ of it.” For is superfluous in the phrase, “ More than he knows 
for.” “ No discouragement for the authors to proceed ;” “ to the authors,” 
&.c. It was perfectly in compliance to some persons;” “ with.” “ The wisest 
princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to 
their sufficiency, to rejy upon coiuisel;” “ diminution cf” and “ derogation 
from.” 

3d, With respect to the, prepositions with and upon. “ Reconciling himself 
with the king.” “ Those things which have the greatest resemblance with 
each other, frequently differ the most.” “ That such rejection should be con¬ 
sonant with onr common nature.” “ Conformable with,” 6c c. “ The history 
of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts.” In ail,the above instances, it 
should he “ to” instead of “with." “ it is a use that, perhaps, 1 should not 
have thought on ;” “ thought of.” “ A greater quantity may be taken from 
the heap, without making any sensible alteration dpon it';” “ in it.” “ Intrust¬ 
ed to persons on whom the parliament could confide;” “in whom.” “He 
was made much on at Argos ;” “much of.” “If policy can prevail upon 
force;” “ over force.” “ 1 do likewise dissent with the examiner;” “ from.” 

4th, With respect to the prepositions in. from. See. ‘*’Tlicv should l>e in¬ 
formed in some parts of his character ;” “ about or “concerning” “Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;” “ under” “ That variety of 
faciions into which we are still engaged ;” “ in which.” “ To restore myself 
into the favor;” “to the favor.” “Could lie have profited from his tepeated 
experiences j” “ by.’ From seems to be superfluous alter forbear , as, “ He 


V 


SYNTAX. 


160 


could not forbear from appointing the pope/’ <fcc. “ A strict observance after 
times and fashions ;” “ of times.” “ The character which we may now value 
ourselves by drawing;” “ upon drawing.” “ Neither of them shall make me 
swerve out of the path;” “from the path.” “ Ye blind guides, which strain at 
a gnat, and swallow a camel;” it ought to be, “ which strain out a gnat, or, 
take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it.” The impropriety of the prepo¬ 
sition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

The proposition amoncr generally implies a number of things. It cannot 
be properly used in conjunction w'ith the word every, which is in the singular 
number; as, “ Which is found among every species of liberty;” “ The opinion 
seems to gain ground among every body.” 

“ He is resolved of going to the Persian court.” Will you correct this sen¬ 
tence '! ‘“You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons.” 
How should this sentence be altered ? 

“ Reconciling himself with the king.” What inaccuracy is there in this sen¬ 


tence 1 “ They should be informed in 

you correct this sentence I 

“ She finds a difficulty of fixing her 

' mind.” 

“ Her sobriety is no derogation to 
her understanding.” 

“ There was no water, and he died 
for (1.) thirst.” 

“ We can fully confide on (2.) none 
but the truly good.” 

“ I have no occasion of his sendees.” 

‘ Many have profited from good ad¬ 
vice.” 

“ Many ridiculous practices have been 
brought in vogue.” 

“ The error was occasioned by com¬ 
pliance to earnest entreaty.” 

“ This is a principle in unison to our 
nature.” 

%t We should entertain no prejudices 
to simple and rustic persons.” 

“ They are at present resolved of do¬ 
ing their duty.” 

“ That boy is known under the name 
of the idler.” 

“ Though conformable with custom, 
it is not warrantable.” 

“ This remarkris founded in truth.” 

“ His parents think on him and his 
improvements, with pleasure and 
hope.” 

“ His excuse was admitted of by (3.) 
his master.” 

“ What went ye out for to see ?” 

u There appears to have been a mill¬ 
ion men brought into the field.” 

* His present was accepted of by his 
friends.” 

‘ More than a thousand of men were 
destroyed.” 

1 it is my request that he will be par¬ 
ticular in speaking to the follow¬ 
ing points.” 

“The Saxons reduced the greater 


some parts of his character.” Will 


part of Britain to their own 
power.” 

“ He lives opposite the royal ex¬ 
change.” 

“ Their house is situated to the north¬ 
east side of the road.” 

“ The performance was approved of 
by all who understood it.” 

“ He was accused with having acted 
unfairly.” 

“ She has an abhorrence to all deceit¬ 
ful conduct.” 

“ They were some distance (4.) from 
home, when the accident hap¬ 
pened.” 

“ His deportment was adapted for 
conciliating regard.” 

“Mv father writes me very frequent¬ 
ly.” 

“ Their conduct was agreeable with 
their profession.” 

“ We went leisurely above stairs, and 
came hastily below. We shall 
write up stairs this forenoon, and 
down stairs in the afternoon.” 

“ The politeness of the world has 
the same resemblance with benev¬ 
olence, that the shadow has with 
its substance.” 

“ He had a taste of such studies, and 
pursued them earnestly.” 

“ When we have had a true taste for 
the pleasures of virtue, we can 
have no relish for those of vice.” 

“ How happy it is to know how to 
live at times by one’s self, to leave 
one’s sell iil regret, to find one's 
self again with pleasure ! The 
world is then less necessary for 
us.” 

“ Civility makes its way among every 
kind of persons.” 


/ 




<i.) “ of: 


(2.) « m.’ 

15 


(3.) «tv." 


(4.) R. XXII. 




170 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they fol¬ 
low verbs and participles of motion 3 as, “ I went to Loudon “ I am going 
to town” But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to he ; 
as, *• I have been at London 3 ” “ I was at the place appointed ; 77 “ I shall be 
at Baris.We likewise say, “He touched, arrived at any place. 7 ' The 
preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; as, “ He lives 
m France, in London, or in Birmingham . 77 But before villages, single houses, 
and cities which are in distant countries, at is used 3 as, “ Ho lives at Hack¬ 
ney j” “ He resides at Montpellier . 77 

it is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun otic atiolher, wlieth 
er die preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before them 
both. Wc may say, “ They were jealous of one another 3 ” or, “ They were 
jealous one of another j 77 but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions; as, excepting, respecting , 
touching ,• concerning , according. “ They were all in fault except or excepting 
him . 77 

How is the preposition to used with nouns of placo ? Give an example 
Are participles ever used as prepositions 7 Give an example. 

5. 

“ I have been to London, after having are going for Liverpool. They 

resided a year at France 3 and I intend to reside some lime in 

now Jive at Islington . 77 Ireland . 77 

“ They have just lauded in Hull, and 


RUXB XX. 


Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 
RULE XVIII. 


Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood 
and tense , and nouns or pronouns of the same case . 


A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its 
utility. “ If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will 
succeed 3 ” “ if he prefers.” “ To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is in¬ 

human 5 and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ; 77 “ and to want 
compassion . 77 “ The parliament addressed the king, and lias been prorogued 
the same day 5 ” “ and teas prorogued . 77 “ His wealth and him bid adieu to 
each oilier ; 77 “ and he.” “ He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live har¬ 
moniously ;” “ comrade and me.” “ My sister and her were on good terms 3 77 
11 and site.” “ We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, 
and are searching after those which are out of our reach j 77 it ought to be, 
'• and search after.” 


“ His wealth and him bid adieu to each other . 77 Will you correct ti*s sen- 
tence, and give the rule for Conjunctions 7 


“ Professing regard, and to act (1.) 
differently, discover a base mind . 77 

u Did lie not tell me his fault, and en¬ 
treated me to forgive him ! 7 ' 7 

“ My. brother and him are tolerable 
grammarians . 77 

“ If lie understand the subject, and 
attends to it industriously, lie can 
scarcely fail of success . 77 

“You and us enjoy many privileges . 77 

“She and him are very unhappily 
connected . 77 

“ To be moderate in our views, and 


proceeding temperately in the 
pursuit of them, is the best way 
to ensure success . 77 

“ Between him and I there is some 
disparity of years ; but none be¬ 
tween him and she . 77 

“ By forming themselves on fantastic 
models, and ready to vie with one 
another in the reigning follies, the 
young begin with being ridiculous, 
and end with being vicious and 
immoral . 77 


1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods 
and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if 


(I.) “ or, “ To jnvftt* regard, and to aU,” fcc. 



SYNTAX. 


171 


not always, be repealed, which is not necessary, though it may be done, under 
the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, u He lives temperate¬ 
ly, and he should live temperately ;” “ He may return, hut he will not contin¬ 
ue ;” “ She was proud, though she is now humble :” but it is obvious, that, in 
such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by this means, the 
latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the 
preceding, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress 
of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the 
negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed ; as, 
“ He is rich, but he is not respectable.” There appears to be, in general, 
equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when the 
course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The fol¬ 
lowing sentences may therefore be improved : “ Anger glances into the breast 
of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;” “ but rests onlyor, 
11 but it will rest only ” “ Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired 

also, if her worth were really known “ and she would.” u The world be¬ 
gins to recede, and will soon disappear;” “ and it will.” 

Do conjunctions ever connect different moods and tenses of verbs ? What 
case must generally be repeated ia such instances ? Give an example. 


u We have met with many disappoint¬ 
ments ; and, if life continue, shall 
(1.) probably meet with many 
more.” 

“ Rank may confer influence, but will 
(2.) not necessarily produce vir¬ 
tue.” 

* He does not want courage, but is 
defective in sensibility.” 

11 These people have indeed acquired 


great riches, but do not command 
esteem.” 

“ Our seasons of improvement are 
short, and, whether usod or not, 
will soon pass away.” 

“He might have been happy, and is 
now (3.) fully convinced of it.” 

u Learning strengthri s the mind, and, 
if properly appbeo, will improve 
our morals too.” 


KTTI.E XXVXX3. 

Corresponding wit's Murray’s Grammar 
RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative , some the sub¬ 
junctive , mood after them. It is a general rule , that 
when something contingent or doubtful is implied , the 
subjunctive ought, to be used; as, “If I were to write, 
he would not regard it“ He will not be par¬ 
doned, unless he repent 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
require the indicative mood. li A.s virtue advances , 
so vice recedes “He is healthy, because he is tem¬ 
perate.” 

The conjunctions if, though , unless, except, whether, &c., generally require 
the subjunctive mood after them ; as, “ If thou he afflicted, repine not;” 
11 Though he slay me, yet wiil I trust in him j” “ He cannot be clean, unless 
ho wash himself j” “ No power, except it were given from above ;” “ Whether 
it were l or they, so we preach.” But even these conjunction*, when the sen¬ 
tence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative;” as, “ Though he is poor, 
he is contented,” 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the uts- 


(1.) “ xot'thaU.” 


(%.) « « Will * 


(S.) “ and note he it.’ 






172 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods r “ 'Though he were. 
divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme au¬ 
thority ; though lie were endued with supernatural powers, and could, there¬ 
fore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles; yet, in compli¬ 
ance with the way in which human nature and reasonaljje creatures are usual¬ 
ly wrought upon, he reasoned.” That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and 
endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted, 
as not admitting the least doubt; they would therefore have been better ex¬ 
pressed in the indicative mood : “ Though lie was divinely inspired ; though 
ne was endued with supernatural powers.” The subjunctive is used in the lilce 
improper manner, in the following example: u Though he were a son, yet 
learned he obedience, bv the things which he suffered.” But, in a similar pas 
sage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employed to tjie same purpose ; 
“ Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor.*' 

What conjunctions genemlly require the subjunctive mood after them ? 


“ If he acquires (1.) riches, they will 
corrupt his mind, and be useless 
to others.” 

“ Though he urges me yet more ear¬ 
nestly, I shall not comply, unless 
he advances more forcible rea¬ 
sons.” 

“ I shall walk in the fields to-day, un¬ 
less it rains.” 

“ As the governess were (2.) present, 
the children behaved properly.” 

“She disapproved the measure, be¬ 
cause it were very improper.” 

“ Though he be high, he hath respect 
to the lowly.” 


Though he were her friend, he did 
not attempt to justify her conduct.” 

“ Whether he improve or not, 1 can¬ 
not determine.” 

“ Though the fact be extraordinary, it 
certainly did happen.” 

“ Remember what thou v/ert, and be 
(3.) humble.” 

“ O that his heart was tender, and 
susceptible of the woes of others !” 

“ Shall then this t erse to future age 
pretend. 

Thou wert my guide, philosopher, 
and friend V 


1. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require 
the subjunctive mood; as, “ Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty ;” “ Re- 

5 rove not a scorner, lest he hate thee“ Take heed that thou speak not to 
acob.” 

If, with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive 
mood ; as, “ If he do hut touch the hills, they shall smoke “ If he be hut. 
discreet, he will succeed.” But the indicative ought to be used, on this occa-- 
sion, when future time is not signified; as, “ If, in this expression, he does hut 
jest, no offence should be taken ;” “ If she is hut sincere, 1 am happy.” The 
same distinction applies to the following forms of expression : “ If he do sub¬ 
mit, it will be from necessity ;” “ Though he does submit, he is not convinced ;” 
“ If thou do not reward this service, he will be discouraged ;” “ If thou dost 
heartily forgive him, endeavor to forge he offence.” 

When do lest and that require the suojunctive mood after them ? When 
does if require the subjunctive ? When the indicative ? 


“ Despise not any condition, lest it 
happens to be your own.” 

“ Let him that is sanguine take heed 
lest he miscarries.” 

“ Take care that thou breakest not 
any of the established rules.” 

“ If he does but (4.) intimate his de¬ 
sire, it will be sufficient to produce 
obedience.” 

“At the time of his return, if he is but 
expert in the business, he will find 
employment.” 


“ Lf he do but speak to display his 
abilities, he is unworthy of atten¬ 
tion.” 

“ If he be but in health, I am content.” 

“ If he does promise, lie will certainly 
perform.” 

“ Though he do praise her, it is only 
for her beauty.” 

“ If thou dost not forgive, perhaps 
thou wilt not be forgiven.” 

“ If thou do sincerely believe the 
truths of religion, act according 

iy” 


(1.) 464. 


(2.) 466. 


(3.) J-rnptra. 


(4.) 654. 




SYNTAX. 


173 


2. In the following; instances, the conjunction that, expressed or understood, 
seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood : “ So much 
she dreaded his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not lament;” “ He 
reasoned so artfully, that his friends would listen, and think [that] he were not 
wrong'.” 

Wili ycu repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? 

2 . 

u His confused behavior made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make nny 

sonable to suppose that he were reply.” 

guilty.” 11 His apology was so plausible, that 

1 He is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought 

he were innocent.” 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive 
moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a 
great impropriety ; as in tiiese instances : “ Jf there he but one body of legis¬ 
lators, it is iv better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there will want a 
casting voice.” “ If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone 
astra^T,” See. 

May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive and indicative moods 
after it in the same sentence ? Give an example of this impropriety. 

" 3. 

u If one man prefer a life of industry, “ No one engages in that business, un¬ 
it is because he has an idea of less he aim at reputation, or hopes 

comfort in wealth ; if another pre- for some singular advantage.” 

fers a life of gayely, it is from a u Though the design be laudable, and 
•ike idea concerning pleasure.” is favorable to our interest, it will 

involve much anxiety and labor.” 

4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language, have 
arisen from’the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the 
sentence, and made it regular ; and it is probable, that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words now m use; which 
will appear from the following examples: “We shall overtake him, though 
he run ;” that is, “ though he should run.” “ Un.ess he act prudendy. he will 
not accomplish his purpose ; that is, “ unless ne shall act prudently.” “ If 
Ik* succeed . and obtain ms end. lie wrn not oe the happier for itthat is, “ If 
he should succeed, and shoula ontam his end.” These remarks and o'xam- 
pies are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine the propriety of 
usin'*- them, bv tracing the words in question to their proper origin and ancient 
commotions. But it is necessary to be more particular on this subject, and 
therefore we shall adffa few- observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the sub¬ 
junctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying die 
terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative; ns will 
be evident from the following examples : “ If thou prosper, thou shouldsl be 
thankful.” “ Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned.” Some 
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations; 

If thou jrrosperest,” <fcc.; “ Unless lie studies” See. ; and, as there is great 
diversity of practice in tills point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re¬ 
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different 
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of ter 
mination are necessarv, when these two circumstances concur: 1st, When 
the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and, 2d, When the verb 
lias a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circmn 
stances will be found to unite : “ If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself.” 
u ][ c a hard heart; and if he continue impenitent, lie must suffer.” He 
will maintain liis principles, though he lose his estate.” “ Whether he succeed 
or not, his intention is laudable.”' “ If he be not prosperous, he will not re¬ 
fine.” “ If a man smite his servant, and he die,” &.c. Exod. xxi. 20. In aU 
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to 
luture time. Hut in the instances which follow, future time is not rclerred to, 

15 * 


174 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


and therefore a different construction takes place : u If thou firest, virtuously 
thou art happy.” “ Unless he means what lie says, he is doubly faithless.’ 
u If he allows the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her precepts.’’ 
“ Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us.” u Whether 
virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dispute.” “ If thou be 
lievest with all thy heart, thou mayest,” &c. Acts viii. 37. There are many 
sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither contingency nor futuri¬ 
ty is denoted; as, u Though he excels her in knowledge she far exceeds him 
in virtue.” “ 1 have no doubt of his principles ; but if ne believes the truths of 
religion, he does not act according to them.” 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary, as 
tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, w ill be evident, by inspect¬ 
ing the following examples; which show that there are instances in which nei¬ 
ther of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three examples fol¬ 
lowing, contingency is denoted, but not futurity: “ If he thinks as he speaks, 
he may safely be trusted.” “ If he is now disposed to it, 1 will perform the 
operation.” “ He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me.” In the following 
sentences, futurity is signified, but not contingency. “ As soon as the sun 
sets, it will be cooler.” “ As the autumn advances, these birds wifi grtftlually 
emigrate. ’ 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above 
mentioned may be extended to assert, that, in cases wherein contingency and 
futuwtv cio not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of 
present tune, or to vary its form or termination. The verb would then be in 
Hie ndicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. If these rules, 
vvhicn seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indic¬ 
ative monos in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we should 
have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, and readily ap¬ 
plicable to every case that might occur. It will, doubtless, sometimes happen, 
that on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a strict adherence 
to grammatical rules w'ould render the language stiff and formal; but wl en 
cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a different turn, than 
violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. 

Tias the present tense of the subjunctive mood a future signification ? How 
is this effected ? What two circumstances should concur to render necessary 
this change of termination ? 

Should the 'termination be changed when futurity and contingency do not 
concur 1 What mood or form wall the verb then be in ? 


“ Unless he learns faster, he will be 
no scholar.” 

" Though he falls, he shall not be ut¬ 
terly oast down.” 

“On condition that he conies, I will 
consent to stay.”, 

" However that affair terminates , (1.) 
my conduct will be unimpeacha¬ 
ble.” 

u If virtue rewards us not so soon as 
we desire, the payment will be 
made with interest.” 

u Till repentance composes his mind, 
he will be a stranger to peace.” 

“ Whether he confesses or not, the 
truth will certainly be discover¬ 
ed.” 

"If thou censorest uncharitably, thou 
wait be entitled to no favor.” 

“ Though, at times, the ascent to the 
temple of virtue apoears steep 
and craggy, be not discouraged. 


persevere until thou gainest the 
summit: there, all is order, beauty 
and pleasure.” 

“ If Charlotte desire to gain esteem 
and love, she does not employ the 
proper means.” 

“ LTnless the accountant deceive me, 
my estate is considerably improv¬ 
ed.” 

“ Though self-government produce 
some uneasiness, it is light when 
compared with the pain of vicious 
indulgence.” 

“ Whether he think as he speaks, time 
will discover.” 

“ If thou censure uncharitably, thou 
deservest no favor.” 

“ Though Virtue appear severe, she 
is truly amiable.” 

“ Though success be very doubtful, it 
is proper that he endeavors to 
succeed.” 


0.1 Or. “may terminate.” 





SYNTAX. 


175 


5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunctive 
mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. Some writers express 
themselves in the perfect tense as follows : “ If thou have determined, we must 
submit:” " Unless he have consented, the writing - will be void but we be¬ 
lieve that few anthers of critical sagacity write in this maimer. The proper 
form seems to be, " If thou hast determined,” “ Unless he has consented,” 
&c., conlormably to what we generally meet with in the Bible : " I have sur- 
named thee, though thou hast not known me.” Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is 

tiie hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained,” &,c. Job xxvii. 8 . See 
also Acts xxviii. 4. 

" If thou have determined, we must submit.” How should this sentence be 
^ altered ? 

5. 

"If thou Imve promised, be faithful to submission, he is too generous to 
thy engagement.” exact it.” 

" Though he have proved his right to " Unless he have improved, he is uir- 

fit for the office.” 

f». In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such ex¬ 
pressions as these; “ If thou had applied thyself diligently, thou wouidst have 
reaped the advantage $” " Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we can¬ 
not determine ;” " If thou will undertake the business, there is little doubt of 
success.” This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be 
warranted bv the general practice of correct writers. They should be, hadst, 
shaft and will : and we find them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptures: 

If thou hadst known,” &,c. Luke xix. 47. " If thou hadst been here,” &c. 

John xi. 21. "If thou wilt, thou eanst make me clean.” Matt. viii. 2. See, 
also, 2 Sam. ii. 2T; Matt. xvii. 4. 

“ If thou wilt undertake the business, there is little doubt of success/’ Is this 
mode of expression warranted by good authority ? How sliould it be altered ? 

6 . 

" If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou of the measuro, we shall not de- 
wouldst not be the happier for sire thy support.” 
it.” " Though thou will not acknowledge, 

" Unless thou shall see the propriety thou canst not deny the fact.” 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive 

mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination ; as, " If thou loved him 
truly, thou wouidst obey him;” " Though thou did conform, thou hast gained 
nothing by it.” This variation, however, appears to be improper. Our pres¬ 
et)! version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a good grammatical 
authority in points of this nature, decides against it: “If thou knewest the 
<»ift,” &c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory ?” &c. 

? Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan. v. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the form 
of the verb to he, when used subjunctivelv in the imperfect tense, is indeed 
very considerably and properly varied from that which it has in the imperfect 
of the indicative "mood 5 as the learner will perceive by turning to the con¬ 
jugation o’f that verb. 

Is thjs second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its termination 
in the subjunctive mood? Will you give an example? Is this variation 
proper ? 

7. 

" If thou [rare liberally, thou wilt re- " Was he ever so great angl opulent, 
ceive a liberal reward.” this conduct would debase him.” 

" Though thou did injure him, he har- “ Was I to enumerate all her virtues, 
bors no resentment.” it would look like flattery.” 

" It would be well, if the report was "Though 1 was perfect, yet would I 
onlv the misrepresentation of her not presume.” 

enemies.” 

8 . It may not be superfluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the po¬ 
tential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination 
of the second pet on singular. We properly say, " If thou mayst or camt. go •” 
“ Though thou vdghtst live;” " Unless thou c midst read j” " If thou wouidst 


176 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


learn and not “ If thou may or can go/' &c. It is sufficient, on this point, 
to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth :—“Jf thou shoaldst go;” 
Johnson. “ If thou mayst, migklst, or covldst love ;” L owth. Some authors 
think that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
auxiliaries should he varied; as, “ 1 advise thee, that then way beware;” 
“ He checked tliee.f/taf thou should not presume but there does not appear 
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of “ condition, doubt, 
contingency,” See. does not warrant a cnange in the form of these auxiliaries, 
why should they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The transla¬ 
tors of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended 
for. “ Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst tie their king.” Neh. vi. 6. 
u Inhere is forgiveness with thee, that, thou mayst oe feared.” Ps. exxx. 4. 

from the preceding observations unuer this rule, it appears, that, with re¬ 
spect to what is termed the present tense of an) verb, when the circumstances 
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations ol 
the second and third persons singular; that without the concurrence of those 
circumstances, the terminations should not be altered : and that the verb and 
the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un¬ 
dergo no alterations whatever, except the imperfect of the verb to he. which, in 
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for 
the student to inquire, \Y hat is the extent of the subjunctive mood? Some 
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs 
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, and to the 
imperfect tense of the verb to he, when it denotes contingency, &: c.; because 
in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose 
that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the 
opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, besides the 
two cases just mentioned., all verbs in the three past and the two future tenses 
are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty, 
though they have not any change of termination; and that, when contingency 
is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative 
mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They think that the definition 
and nature of the subjunctive mood have no reference to change of termina¬ 
tion, but that they refer merely to the manner of the being, action, or passion 
signiSed by the verb; and that the subjunctive mood may as properly exist 
without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood.which has no termina¬ 
tions different from those of the indicative. The decision of this point may 
not, by some grammarians, bethought of much consequence. But the rules 
which ascertain the propriety of varying or not varying the terminations 
of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These' rales may be well 
observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the nature and limits of 
the subjunctive mood.* 

Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
change the termination of ike second person singular ? When is it proper to 
vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of .the present 
tense ? Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the auxiliaries of 
the first future, undergo any alteration? What exception? What is the 
opinion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the subjunctive mood ? 
What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which of these opinions does 
the author concur? 


u Unless thou can fairlv 


cause, give it up'honorably.” 


support 

irnhb 


“ If thou may share in his labors, be 
thankful, and do it cheerfully.” 

* \< chave sta'nt, far the students informal inn, the different opinions of grammarians, .'esp«-c' iur •li* Rne'i 
subjunctive mood : Fmt, that which supposes there is no such mood in our lanjuaae ; Se-wJ7v, that nine 
ex.onds it no farther than the. variation, of the verb extend ; T/nrdh/, that which we have rdoptoi a, 
exp.amed at large, and which, in generai, corresponds with the views or the most approved writer; on En’eti 
grammar, we may add * Fourth opinion, which appears to posses?, at least. much plausib'litv 

minirtn atiniltc fti/» -a rro n .aa net mo boor. ......... ...'ll. - « . . f . **. * 


vi «.ic OI.UJUMUIVC ijivuu claims me mem or renaerlug me whose system of *hc n 

of being more conformable than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and ofi»twferttMi;" 
SKTr ^uMt^ 68 *’ 0 "’ Wh,Ch aCC ° rd Wi ' h iU 8i ^Plicity and nature. Pernaps this thee 






SYNTAX. 


177 


u Though thou might have foreseen 
the danger, thou couldst not have 
avoided it.” 

u If thou could convince him, he 
would not act accordingly.” 
u If thou would improve in knowl¬ 
edge, be diligent.” 


“ Unless thou should make a timely 
retreat, the danger will be una 
voidable.” 

“I have labored and wearied myself, 
that thou may be at ease.” 

“ Pie enlarged on those dangers, that 
thou should avoid them.” 


• 9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them, 
either expressed or understood ; as, 


1st,. Though — yet, nevertheless; as, “ Though ho was rich, yet for our sake® hft 
became poor;” “ Though powerful, he was meek.” 

' 2d. Whether—or ; as, “ Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.” 

3d. Either — or ; as, “ I will either send it, or bring it myself.” 

4th. Neither- — nor ; as, “ JVeither he nor I uin able to compass it.’ 

5th. As — as ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, “ She is as amiable as h*. 
sister; and «.? much respected.” 

6th As—so ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, “ As the stars, so shall thy 
seed he.” 

7th. As — so ; expressing a comparison of quality ; as, “ As the one dieth, so diet» 
the other“ As he reads, they read.” 

8th. So — as; with a verb expressing a Comparison of quality; as, “To see thy 
glory, so as l have seen thee in the sanctuary.” 

9th. So — ns; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti¬ 
ty ; as, “ Pompey was not so great, a general as Ctesar, nor so great a man.” 

10th. So — that : expressing a consequence; us, “ Ho was so fatigued, that ho 
could scarcely move.” 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal propri 
ety. “ The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, 
assented to the measure.” In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been 
better; but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in ihe former part of 
the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. 


Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong 
ing to them ? Give examples. 


“ Neither the cold or the fervid, but 
characters uniformly warm, are 
formed for friendship.” 

“ They are both praiseworthy, and 
one is equally (1.) deserving as 
the other.” 

“ He is not as diligent and learned as 
his brother.” 

“ ] will present it to him myself, or 
direct it to be given to him.” 

“ Neither despise or oppose what thou 
dost not understand.” 

“ The house is not as commodious as 
we expected it would be.” 

“ 1 must, however, be so candid to 
own I have been mistaken.” 

“ There was something so amiable, 
and vet so piercing m his look, as 
(2.) affected me at once with love 
- and terror.” 

-—--“ I gained a son ; 

And such a son as all men hailed me 
happy.” 


“ The dog in the manger would not 
eat the hav himself, nor suffer the 
ox to eat it.” 

“As far as 1 am able to judge, the 
book is well wriiten.” 

“ We should faithfully perform the 
trust committed to us, or ingen¬ 
uously relinquish the charge.” 

“ He is not as eminent, and as muck 
esteemed, as he thinks himself to 
be.” 

“ The work is a dull performance, 
and is neither capable of pleasing 
(3.) the understanding, or the im¬ 
agination.” 

“ There is no condition so secure, as 
cannot admit of change.” 

“ This is an event which nobody pre¬ 
sumes upon, or is so sanguine to 
hope for.” 

“ We are generally pleased with any 
little accomplishments of body or 
mind.” 


10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The 
following are examples of this impropriety : “The relations are so uncertain, 
as that thev require a great deal of examination;” “ It should be. “ that they 
require,” &c. “ There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend 

(1.) For “ equally” read “ as.” (2.) “ that it.” (3.) “ neither the. ” 







178 


ENGLR3H GRAMMAR. 


Rome ill consequences; it ought to he, “so sanguine as not to apprehend/ 1 
&c. ; or, “ no man, how sanguine soever, who die! not," &c. “ To trust in him 

is no more but to acknowledge his power." “ This is no other hut the gate of 
paradise." In both of these instances, but should be than . “ We should suffi¬ 
ciently weigh the objects of our hope; whether they are such as wc may 
reasonably expect from them what they propose," &c. It ought to be, “ that 
we may reasonably," &c. “ The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as 
he ought to have done “ with which lie ought." “ In the order as they lie 
in his prefacej" it should be, “ in order as tliev lie;" or, “in the order in 
which they lie." “ Such sharp replies that costliim his life “ as cost," See. 
“ If he were truly that scarecrow, as lie ifr now commonly painted j" “such a 
scarecrow," See. “ I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the 
painters," Sc c.; “ do such justice as to oblige," &c. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under ;t ? What is said 
of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an exam¬ 
ple. When has as the force of a relative pronoun ? (1.) Give an example. 


There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form 
of a verb. “ fVere there no difference, there would be no choice.” 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes 
made use of; as, u Had lie done this, he had escaped “ Had the limitations on 
the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made 
him regard us sacred the boundaries of the constitution.” The sentence in the 
common form would have read thus: “ If the limitations on the prerogative had 
been,” &c. u his integrity would have made him regard,” &c. 

The* particle as , when it is connected with the pronoun such , has the force of a 
relative pronoun ; as, a Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own 
conduct;” which is equivalent to, u Let them who presume,” &c. But when used 
by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent to not* 
withstanding. The words for all that seem to be too low. “ The word was in the 
mouth of every one, hut, for all that, the subject may still Jig a secret.” 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the fol¬ 
lowing sentence : “ It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs 
from that of every other language.” 

The word except is far preferable to other than . “ It admitted of no effectual euro 

other than amputation.” Except is also to be preferred to all but. “They were 
happy, all but the stranger.” In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is 
improperly omitted: “ Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine to hope.” “ I 
must, however, be so just to own.” A 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood ; ns, “ I beg yen 
would come to me “ See tbou do it not.;” instead of “ that you would,” “ that 
thou do.” But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction wore 
much better inserted: “Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to pos¬ 
terity.” It should be, “ Yet it is just that the memory,” &c. 


10 . 

“ Be ready to succor such persons who 
(2.) need thy assistance.” 

u The matter was no sooner proposed , 
but (3.) he privately withdrew to 
consider it.” 

lt He has too much sense and prudence 
than to become a dupe to such 
artifices.” 

11 It is not sufficient that our conduct, 
as far as it respects others, appears 
to be unexceptionable.” 

1 The resolution was not the less fixed, 
that (4.) the secret was yet com¬ 
municated to very few.” 

1 He opposed the most remarkable 
corruptions of the church of Rome, 
so (5.) as that his doctrines were 
embraced by great numbers.” 


u He gained nothing further by his 
speech, but only (G.) to be com¬ 
mended for liis eloquence/ 

“ He has little more of the scholar 
besides the name.” 

“ He has little of the scholar than the 
name.” 

u They had no sooner risen, but 
they applied themselves to theii 

studies.” 

“ From no other institution, besides 
the admirable one of juries, could 
so great a benefit be expected.” 
u Those savage people seemed te 
have no other element but war.” 
u Such men that act treacherously 
ought to be avoided.” 


(I.) 6156. @.) “cu.» 


(J.) “ than.” (4.) 44 (5.) 44 and on this account.” (6.) 44 ixupt.* 





SYNTAX. 


179 


u Germany ran the same risk as Italy 
had done.” 


" I^o> arrete^e so trivial, hut they (1.) 
deserve to be corrected.” 


auiiE xxix. 

Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 

RULE XX. 

TVhen the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con¬ 
junction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is 
governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or 
understood; as, “Thou art wiser than I ; n that is, 
“ than I am.” “ They loved him more than me 
that is, “more than they loved me.” “The senti¬ 
ment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him that is, “ than by him.” 

“ The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well 
as in some other forms, may be discovered, by supplying the words that are 
not expressed; which will be evident from the following instances of erroneous 
construction : “ lie can read better than me.” “ lie is as good as her.” 
“ Whether I be present or no.” “ Who did this ? Me.” By supplying the 
words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing 
rule will appear ; as, “ better than I can read j” “ as good as she is j” “ pres- 
ent or not present j” “ 1 did it.” 

“ Thou art wiser than I.” Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it? 

“ They know how to write as well as 
him ; but he is a much better gram, 
marian than them.” 

“ Though she is not so learned as him, 
she is as much beloved and re¬ 
spected.” 

“ These people, though they possess 
more sinning qualities, are not so 
proud as him, nor so vain as her.” 


“ In some respects, we have had as 
many advantages as them ; hut in 
the article of a good library, they 
have had a greater privilege than 
us.” 

** The undertaking was much better 
executed by his brother than he.” 

** They are much greater gainers than 
j me by this unexpected event.” 

1 . By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed; a 
number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner i 
“ Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death.” “ She suffers hourly 
more than me.” “We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were 
obliged to the same proportion more than us.” “ King Charles, and, more 
than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
schemes.” “The drift of all liis sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the 
reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy 
to bear.” “ It was not die work of so eminent an author as him to whom it 
was first imputed.” “-A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's 
wrath is heavier than them both.” “ If the king give us leave, we may per¬ 
form the office as well as them that do.” In these passages, it ought to be, 
“ J. we, he, they,” respectively. 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form an ex¬ 
ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be in the 
objective ease ; as, “ Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned,” &c. 


TWL.obub. than whom . Satan excepted, none higher sat,” &c. 


It is re¬ 



phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

“ She suffers hourly more than me.” Will you correct tins sentence, and 
expl ain w hy it is wrong ? ___ .. 


“inatv *y do no*,* 








180 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

\ i 

hop^companion 7” 


“ Who betrayed 
“ Not me.” 

H Who revealed the secrets he ought 
to have concealed 7” “ Not him.” 

“ Who related falsehoods to screen 
herself, and to bring an odium 
upon others 7” “Not me; it was 
her” 

“ There is but one in fault, and that 
is me.” 


“ Whether he wall be learned or no, 
must depend on his application.’' 

“ Charles XII. of Sweden, than who 
(1.) a more courageous person 
never lived, appears to have been 
destitute of the tender sensibili¬ 
ties of nature.” 

“ Salmasius (a more learned man than 
him has seldom appeared) was not 
happy at the close of life.” 


\ 


HUXiE XXX. 


Corresponding with Murray’s Grammar, 
RULE XXI. 


To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some 
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, 
“.He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and 
. he was a good man,” ive make use of the ellipsis, and 
say, “ He was a learned, wise and good man.” 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety. 
they must be expressed. In the sentence f “ We are 
apt to love who love us,” the word them should be 
supplied. “ A beautiful field and trees,” is not 
proper language; it should be Beautiful fields and 
trees,” or “ A beautiful field and fine trees.” 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical; some exam¬ 
ples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 

“ I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me.” Will you correct this sen¬ 
tence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, bv which the correction is 
made 7 

“I gladly shunned ( 2 .) who gladly 
fled from me.” 

“ And this is (3.) it men mean by dis 4 
tributive justice, and is properly 
termed equity.” 

“ His honor, interest, religion were 
all embarked in this undertaking.” 

('!•) 

u When so good a man as Socrates 

1 . The ellipsis of the article is thus used: “A man, woman, and child 5 ” 
that is, “ a man. a woman, and a child.” “ A house and gardenthat is, “ a 
house and a garden.” “The sun and moon;” that is, “the sun and the 
moon.” “ The day and hour ;” that is, “ the day and the hour.” In all these 
instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of if becomes 
unnecessary. There is. however, an exception to this observation, when some 
peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence : “ Not 
only the year, but the day and the hour.” In this case, the ellipsis of the last 
-^article would be improper. When a different form of the article is requisite, 
^ the article is also properly repeated ; as. “ a house and un orchard,” instead 
of “ a bouse and orchard.” 


(3.) “ tliat whtc/i. ” 

(7,1.“ much ro*tl*/. n 


fell a victim to the madness of the 
people, truth, virtue, religion, fell 
w ith him.” (5.) 

“ The fear of death, nor hope of life, 
could make him submit to a dis¬ 
honest action ” (6.) 

“ An elegant house and furniture were, 
by this -event, irrecoverably lost 
to the owner.” (7.) 


(U “ •wham .''—Note XX (648.) 
•wiee more. '&' “ anS r twice 


( 2 .) “ him who 

6.) “ ffeith) <r—nor 


(4.) Insert “ Ml* 




SYNTAX. 


181 


Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the article 1 Is it necessary to 
repeat die article in each of these instances 1 


with an unimproved, or with a 
corrupted, mind.” 

u The more I see of his conduct, I like 
him better.” 

“ It is not only the duty, but interest, 
of young persons to be studious 
and diligent.” 


- l - 

u These rules are addressed to none 
but the intelligent and the ( 1 .) at¬ 
tentive.” 

“ The gay and the pleasing are, some¬ 
times; tne most insidious, and die 
most dangerous companions.” 

“ Old age wiil prove a joyless and a 
dreary season, if we arrive at it 

2 . The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner : u The laws of 
God <^nd man ;” that is, “ The laws of God and the laws of man.” In some 

“ Christ, the 
emphatical than 

p; 

Will you give an example of the omission of the noun ? Should this ellipsis 
always be used '! 

2 . 

4t These counsels were the dictates of entertainment, when others leave 
virtue, and the dictates (2.) of true us.” (4.) 

honor.” “ Without firmness, nothing that is 

‘Avarice and cunning may acquire great can be undertaken; that is 


v»oa ana man ; that is, “ a he laws of God and the laws of man 
very CTnphaiical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, 
power of God, and the wisdom ot God;” which is more enq 
“ Christ the power and wisdom of God.” 


and cunning may acquire 
an estate, but avarice and cunning 
cannot gam friends.” ( 8 .) 

A taste for useful knowledge will 
provide for us a great and noble 


difficult or hazardous, can be ac¬ 
complished.” (5.) 

“ The anxious man is the votary of rich¬ 
es ; the negligent of pleasure.”( 6 .) 


3. The ell ipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : “A de¬ 
lightful garden and orchardthat is, “ A delightful garden and a delightliil 
orchard.” “A little man and woman;” that is, “ a little m^n and a little 
woman.” In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to have 
exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the 
latter substantive as to the former; otherwise the ellipsis should not be ad¬ 
mitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers, 
as, “ A magnificent bouse and gardens.” In this case it is better to use 
another adjective; as, “ A magnificent house, and fine gardens.” 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective ? What rule is 
to be observed in the use of this ellipsis ? 

3. 

crimes had brought him into “ That species of commerce will pro 


extreme distress and extreme per¬ 
plexity.” (7.) 

“ He lias an affectionate brother, and 
an affectionate sister, and they 
live in great harmony.” ( 8 .) 

* We must guard against too great se- 
. verity.and facility of manners.”(9.) 

should often recollect what the 
wisest men have said and written 
concerning human happiness and 


duce great gain or loss. ( 10 .) 

“ Many days, and even weeks, pass 
away unimproved.” ( 10 .) 

“ This wonderful action struck the be¬ 
holders with exceeding ( 11 .) as 
tonishinont.” ( 10 .) 

“ The people of this country possess 
a healthy climate and soil.” (9.) 

“ They enjoy also a free constitution 
and laws.” ( 10 .) 


vanity/' (10.) 

4 . The following is the ellipsis of the ■pronoun: “I love and fear him;” 
mat is, “ 1 love him, and f tear him.” “ My house and lands ;” that is, “ My 
Jiouse, and mv lands.” in these instances, ihe ellipsis may take place with 
propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be 
used • as. “ His friends and his foes ;” “ My sons and my daughters.” 

In some of the common forms of speech the relative pronoun is usually 
omitted ; as, “ This is the man they love.” . r<Aead of. “ This isJhje man whom 

~7T ~5 , ec , ■ • ti, c ” (2.) “ virtue and of true.” (3?) . nsert “ they" in Ihe place o! two nouns 

■i i Insert •'eitertainmrnts” (5.) Insert “ nothing.” (fi.t I user I “ man, that.” (7.) Reject an adjee 
live. S. Reject two word*. (9.) Invert two words. (10.) Insert an adjective. (11.) “ eMxulmgly.* 

16 






182 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


they love}” " These are the goods they bought,” for u These are the good* 
which they bought.” 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex¬ 
pressed 3 as it is more proper to say, " The posture in wnich I lay,” than 
* In tiie posture I lay } " The horse on which 1 rode, fell down,” than " The 
horse I rode, fell down.” 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together j 
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other 
with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen.’' Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied ; 
as, " We speak that which we do know, and testily that which we have seen.” 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun ? Can this ellipsis 
be properly used at all times ? 

4. 


u His reputation and his estate were 
both lost by gaming.” ( 1 .) 
u This intelligence not only excited 
our hopes, but fears too.” ( 2 .) 

* His conduct is not scandalous : and 
that is the best can be said of it.” 


.J 3 -) 

** This was the person whom calumny 
had greatly abused, and sustained 
the injustice with singular pa¬ 
tience.*’ ( 2 .) 

"He discovered some qualities in the 
youth of a disagreeable nature, 
and to him were wholly unac¬ 
countable.” (2 1 

"The captain had several men died 

s - in his ship of the scurvy.” ( 2 .) 


11 He is not only sensible and learned, 
but is religious too.” ( 2 .) 

" The Chinese language contains an 
immense number of words} and 
who would learn them must pos 
sess a great memory.” ( 2 .) 

" By presumption and by vandy we 
provoke enmity, and wo incur 
contempt.” ( 1 .) 

" In the circumstances I was at that 
time, my troubles pressed heavily 
upon me.” (4.) 

" He had destroyed his constitution, 
by the very same errors that so 
many have been destroyed.” 


5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the foliowing instances: " The man 
was old and crafty that is, " The man was old. and the man was crafty.” 
" She was young, and beautiful, and good j” that is, " She was young, she 
was beautiful, and she was good.” “ Thou art poor, and wretched, anil mis¬ 
erable, and blind, and naked.” If we would fill up the ellipsis in the (last 
sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before eacli of the adjectives. 

If, ki such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the rest/ 
that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied} as, " Slie ii 
young and beautiful, and she is good.” 

u I went to see and hear him,” that is, “ I went to see, and I went to hear 
him.” In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, / 
went , but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of 
the compound tenses, a/ e frequently used alone, to spare the repetition of the 
verb } as, " lie regards his word, but thou dost notthat is, " dost not regard 
it.” "We succeeded, but they did not}” "did not succeed.” "I have 
learned my task, but tlrou hast not" hast not learned.” " They must, and 
they shall be punished}” that is, " they must be punished.” 

AVill you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb? Suppose we wisl/to 
point out one property above the rest? "llow are the auxiliaries sometimes 
used ? 


" He is temperate, he is disinterested, 
he is benevolent 5 he is an orna¬ 
ment to Ins family, and a credit to 
his profession.” (5.) 

"Genuine virtue supposes our benev¬ 
olence to be strengthened, and *0 
be confirmed by principle.” ( 6 .) 


,10 Reject a pronoun. (52.) Jns«rt a pronoun. 
) Rejnst «ix woM», and Insert one. ($.) R*j©ct 


" Perseverance in laudable pursuits 
will reward all our toils, and will 
produce effects beyond our calcu¬ 
lation.” (7.) 

“ It is happy for us, when we can 
calmly and deliberately look back 
on the past, and can quietly antici¬ 
pate the future.” ( 7 .) 

“ Itol— JV.U." (4.) Iiuart two word*, 

wort*. p.) Rojo** on* word 




SYNTAX. 


183 


** The sacrifices of virtue will not only 
be rewarded hereafter, but recom¬ 
pensed even in this life. (1.) 
u Ali those possessed of any office, 
resigned their former commis- 
sion. (2.) 

‘ If young persons were determined 
to conduct themselves by the rules 


of virtue, not only would they es¬ 
cape innumerable dangers, but 
command respect from the licen¬ 
tious themselves.” (2.) 

“ Charles was a man . of learning, 
knowledge, and benevolence ; 
and, what is still more, a true 
Christian.” (2.) 


6 . The ellipsis of the adverb is used ill the following manner : “ He spoke 
and acted wisely;” that is, “He spoke wisely, and he acted wisc4y.” 
“ Thrice I went and offered my service;” that is, “ Thrice I went, and thrice 
I offered my service.” 

How is the ellipsis of the adverb used ? 

6 . 


11 The temper of him who is always in “ How a seed grows up into a tree, 
the bustle of the world, will be and the mind acts upon the body, 

often ruffled, and be often dis- are mysteries which we cannot 

„ turned.” (3.) explain.” (5.) 

u We often commend imprudently, as “ Verily there is a reward for the 
well as censure imprudently.’'(4.) righteous. There is a God that 

judgeth in the earth.” (5.) 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the follow¬ 
ing instances: “ He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;” that 
is, “ He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the 
public buildings.” “ He also went through all the streets and lanes of the 
city;” that is, “ through all the streets, and through all the lanes,” Ac. “ He 
spoke to every man and woman there;” that is, *• to every.man and to every 
woman.” “ This day, next month, last }'car;” that is, “ On this day, in the 
next month, in the last year.” “The Lord do that which seemeth him good;” 
that is, “ which scemcth to him.” 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb 7 


7. 


u Changes are almost continually 
taking piace, in men and in man¬ 
ners, in opinions and in customs, 
in private fortunes and public 
conduct.” (5.) (3.) 

11 Averse either to contradict or blame, 
the too complaisant man goes 
along with the manners that pre¬ 
vail.” (5.) 

“ By this habitual indelicacy, the vir¬ 


gins smilect at what they blushed 
before.” (5.) 

“They are now reconciled to what 
they could not formerly be 
prompted, by any considera¬ 
tions.” (o.) 

“ Cerisurc is the tax which a man pays 
the public for being eminent.” (5.) 

“ Reflect on the state of human life, 
and the society of men as mixed 
with good ami with evil.” (5.) 


8 . The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : “ They confess the power, 
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;” that is, “ the power, and wis¬ 
dom and goodness, and love of,” &c. “ Though I love him, I do not flatter 
him; ’ that is, “ Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him.” 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction 1 

8 . 


“ In all stations and conditions, the 
important relations take place, of 
” masters and servants, and hus¬ 
bands and wives, and parents and 
children, and brothers and friends, 
and citizens and subjects.” (o.) 

“ Destitute of principle, he regarded 
neither his family, nor his friends, 
nor his reputation.” (4.) 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is n 
femes used ; as, “ Oh, pity and shame 1 


“ Religious persons are often unjustly 
represented as persons of roman¬ 
tic character, visionary notions, 
unacquainted with the world, unfit 
to live in it.” (1.) 

“No rank, station, dignity of birth, 
possessions, exempt men from 
contributing their share to public 
utility.” (70 

ot very common : it, howevcF, is some- 
” that is, “ Oh, pity! oh, shame !” 


(1.) Insert three wori*. 
6.) Insert one word. 


(2.) Insert two words. (3.) Reject two words. (4.) Reject one word. 
(6.) Reject four words. (7.) “ nor — n0 — rtor any,” 




184 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, 
numerous examples of it might be given5 but only a few more can be ad¬ 
mitted here. ■ • ’ - 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable one : “ He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from 
one nation} and if another, from another}” that is, “ He will often argue, 
that if this part of our tradeyvere well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation } and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain 
from another nation.” 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : “ Wo 
is me5” i. e. “ wo is to me.” u To let blood 3” i. e. “ to let out blood.” u To 
let down;” i. e. “ to let it fall or slide down.” “ To walk a mile ;” i. e. “ to walk 
through the space of a mile.” “ To sleep all nighti. e. “ to sleep through 
all the night.” “ To go a fishing;” “ To go a hunting 5” i. e. “ to »-o on a fisn- 
mg voyage.or business 3” “ to go on a hunting party.” “ 1 dine at two 
o'clock 3” i. e. “ at two of the clock.”.. “ By sea, by land, on shore ;” i. e. 
“ by the sea, by the land, on the shore.” 

What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection ? 

9. 

“ Oh, my father! Oh, my friend ! how “Oh, piety! virtue! how insensible 
great has been my ingratitude !” have 1 been to your charms!” (2.) 
( 1 .) 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show’the impropriety of ellip¬ 
sis in some particular cases. “ The land was always possessed, during pleasure, 
by those intrusted w ith the command ;” it should be, “ those persons intrusted 5” 
or, “ those who were intrusted.” “ If he had read farther, he would have found 
several of his objections might have been spared 5” that is, “ he would have 
found that several of his objections,” &e. “ There is nothing men are more 
deficient in, than knowing their own characters 5” it ought to be, nothing in 
which men,” and, “ than in knowing.” “ I scarcely know any part of natural 
philosophy would yield more variety and use 3” it should be, u which would 
yield,” &c. “ In the temper of mind lie w r as then 3” that is, “ in which he then 
was.” “ The little satisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the sys¬ 
tems of divinity I have met w ith, made me betake myself to the sole reading of 
the Scriptures 3” it ought to be, “ which are to be found,” and which I have met 
with.” “ He desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return 
their thanks to whom only they were due 3” that is, “ to him to whom,” &c. 

“ There is nothing men are more deficient in, than in know ing their ow’d 
characters.” Will you correct this sentence ? 

10 . 

“ That is a property most men have, “ Most, if not all, the royal family had 
or at least may attain.” (3.) quitted the place.” (2.) 

“ Why do ye that which is not law’ful “By r these happy labors, tliev who sow 
to do on the sabbath days ?” (2.) and reap, will rejoice together.” 

“The show bread, which is not lawful to (4.) 
eat, but for the priests alone.” (2.) 


RTXXjE XXXI. 

Corresponding w’ith Murray’s Grammar, 
RULE XXII. 


All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
other : a regular and dependent construction, through¬ 
out , should be carefully preserved. The following sen¬ 
tence is, therefore, inaccurate: “ He was more be¬ 
loved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio.” It 
should be, “ He was more beloved than Cinthio, but 
not so much admired.” 


tl.) Reject one word. (2.) Insert one word. (3.) Insert three word*. (4.) Insert two words. 




SYNTAX. 


165 


The first oxamplo under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namol), 
4 He was more beloved as Cinthio.” The words more and so much are very improp¬ 
erly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not 
accessary to supply the latter ellipsis 5 because it cannot lead to any discordant or 
improper construction, and the supply would often he harsh or inelegant. 

As the 31st Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at tho first view, 
appear to be too general to Ihj useful. Hut, by ranging under it a number of sen¬ 
tences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the 
true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of tho 
particular rules can sufficiently explain. 

44 This dedication may servo for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publish¬ 
ed it ought to be, 4t that has been, or shall be published.” 44 lie was guided by 
interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community; ii dif¬ 
ferent front; 9 * or, 44 always different from those of the community, and sometimes 
contrary to them.” 44 Will it be urged that these books tore as old, or even 
older than tradition?” the words 44 as old,” and 44 older,” cannot have a com¬ 
mon regimen ; it should bo, 44 as old as tradition, or even older.” 44 It requires few 
talents to which most men arc not horn, or at least may not acquire j” 44 or which, 
at least, they may Hot acquire.” 44 The court of chancery frequently mitigates and 
breaks the teeth of the common law.” In this construction, the first verb is said 
to mitigate the teeth of the common law,” which is an evident solecism. 44 Miti¬ 
gates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it,” would have been grammatical. 

44 They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown 


44 grow into good language,” is very improper. 44 There is never wanting a set of 


evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are 
always ready,” &e. We sny properly, 44 A man acts out of mad zeal,” or, 44 out of 
private hatred ;” hut we cannot say, if we would speak English, 44 he acts out of 
filthy lucre.” 44 To double her kindness and caresses of me the word kindness 
requires to be followed by either to or for y and cannot be constri>ed with the prep¬ 
osition of. 44 Never was matt so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I havo 
done this evening the first and third clauses, namely, 44 never was man so leased,” 
44 as I ave done this evening,” cannot he joined without an impropriety , and to con- 
' ncct the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; 44 or suffered 
half the uneasiness that I have done;” or else, 44 half so much uneasiness as I 
have suffered.” 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such aa 
arc hardly consistent with one another: 44 How much soever the reformation of this 
degencraie age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com¬ 
fortable prospect of futpre times.” The sentence would be more correct in the 


44 Though the reformation 


of this degenerate 


is nearly to be 


following form : fc vi 
despaired of,” &c. 

44 Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty; 
in whose hands is wickedness, an if their right hand is full of gifts.” As the passage 
Introduced by the copulative conjunction and , was not intended as a continuation 
of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, 
the relative whose should have been used instead of ti e possessive their; namely, 
14 and whose right hand i * full of gifts.” 

44 Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hare entered into the heart of man, 
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.” There seems to be 
an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in udouble capacity, 
performing at thelmmo time the offices both of the nominative and objective eases. 
44 Neither’ hath it entered/into the heart of man to conceive the things,” &c. would 
hove been regular. 

“ 4 We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images 
which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision.” it is 
very proper to say, 44 altering and compounding those images which we have once 
received, into all the varieties of picture and vision but we cannot with propriety 
gav « retaining them into all the varieties ;” apd yet, according to the manner in 
which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining , altering , 
and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs tho 



We have the power . 
of alterin'* and compounding them into all the varieties ol picture and vision; or, 
perhaps, better thus: 44 We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding 
those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all tho varie¬ 
ties of picture and vision.” 

Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate ? 
sorve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be 


u This dedication may 
published,” Will you 


point out the iuaccuracics in this sentence, and correct them ? 


36 * 


// 


/ 




186 ' ENGLISH 

u Several alterations and additions 
have been made to the work.” (1.) 

“ The first proposal was essentially 
different, and inferior to the sec¬ 
ond.” (Si.) 

u He is more bold and active, but not 
so wise and studious as his com¬ 
panion.” (3.1 

H Thou hearest the sound of the wind, 
but thou canst not tell whence it 
rometh, and whither it goeth.” 

'* Neither has he, nor any other per¬ 
sons, suspected so much dissimu¬ 
lation.” (4.) 

The court of France or England 
was to have been the umpire. 7 '' (5.) 

“In the reign of Henry II, all foreign 
commodities were plenty in Eng¬ 
land.” (6.) 

“ There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts 
men more out of the reach of ac¬ 
cidents, than that quality gener¬ 
ally possessed by persons of cool 
temper, and is, in common lan¬ 
guage, called discretion. 77 (7.) 

'‘The first project was to shorten dis¬ 
course, by cutting polysyllables 
into one.” (8.) 

'* I shall do all I can to persuade 
others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have. (9.) .. 

* The greatest masters of critical 
learning differ among one an¬ 
other .” 

“ Micaiah said, If thou certainly return 
in peace, then hath not the Lord 
spoken by me. 77 (10.) 

I do not suppose, that we Britons 
want a genius, more than the 
rest of our neighbors.” (10.) 

‘ The deaf man whose ears were 
epened, and his tongue loosened, 
doubtless glorified tfte great Phy¬ 
sician. 77 (11.) 


GRAMMAR. 

“ Groves, fields, and meadows are, at 
any season of the year, pleasant 
to look upon ; but never so much 
as in the opening of the spring.” 
( 12 .) 

“.The multitude rebuked them , because 
they should hold their peace. 77 

“The intentions of some of these phi¬ 
losophers, nay, of many, might 
and probably were good. 7 ’ (13.) 

“ It was an unsuccessful undertaking; 
which, although it has tailed, is no 
objection at all to an enterprise so 
well concerted. 77 (14.) 

“The reward is his.due, and it has al¬ 
ready, or will hereafter he given 
to him. 77 (15.) 

“ By intercourse with wise and expe¬ 
rienced persons, who know tiie 
world, we may improve and rub 
off the rust of a private and retir¬ 
ed education. 77 (16.) 

“ Sincerity is as valuable, and even 
more valuable, than know'ledge. 77 
(17.) 

“ No person was ever so perplexed, or 
sustained the mortifications, as he 
has done to-day.” (18.) 

“ The Romans gave not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity 
for employments, to several towns 
in Gaul, Spain, and Germanv.” 
(19.) 

“ Such writers have no other standard 
on which to form themselves, ex¬ 
cept what chances to be fashiona¬ 
ble and popular. 77 (20.) 

“ Whatever we do secretly, shall be 
displayed and heard in the clear¬ 
est light. 77 (21.) 

“ To the happiness of possessing a 
person of so uncommon merit, 
Boethius soon had the satisfaction 
of obtaining the highest honor his 
country could bestow . 77 


(1.) “ This work has received,” tec. (2.) “ was inferior to the second, and— front it.” (3.) “ uclive 
than hit.” (4.) Insert “ haw..” (5.) “ or that of.” (6.) “plentiful. 1 7.) Insert “ more ” 

and “which.” (8.)“ by redwing — to word s oj one tyllabtc.” (9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Re¬ 
ject one word. (11.) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert “ so ” (13.) Inseil “ heve been.” 

(14.) “ the failure of which is, however.” (15.) lnsett “ been.” (16.) End with, 11 arid rub of Us rvrt.” 

(17.) “as knowledge, and.” (18.) Insert “been” for “done,” and cud with “such mortification.' 

(19.) “ the inhabitants of.” (20.) Reject one word. (21.) “ displayed in the clearest.” 



PROSODY 


Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the true pro¬ 
nunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, 
pause, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification. 


OF PRONUNCIATION. 

OF ACCENT. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or 
syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the 
letter u, and second syllable sume, which take the accent. 

OF QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing 
it. It is considered long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which occa¬ 
sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter; as ,/ull, 
tale, nwdtl, house, feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions 
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, tint, hdnnft, huugtr 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro¬ 
nouncing it; thus mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as 
mat and nftt. 

OF EMPHASIS. 

Bv emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we 
distinguish some word or words on which we desigy to lay a particular stress, 
and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic 
words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a 
greater stress. 

OF PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of (he 
voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. 

OF TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the modu¬ 
lation of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the expression 
of our sentiments. , 


OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of 
syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last 
sound of another. _ 

Wbat is prosody ? Ho™ much more lime does Ike pronunciation of a 

What is accent ? What is the quantity of a svl- long s liable occupy, than a short one ? What is em- 
lable? When is a vowel or syllable long ? WheD phasis ? What are pauses ? What are tones ? What 
short ? Give examples of each. is versification ? What is rhyme ? 









188 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


OF POETICAL FEET. 


A. certain number ef syllables connected form a foot. They are called fea 
because it is by their aid that the voice ; as it were, steps along- through tb 
verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, and ar 
reducible to eight kinds—four of two syllables, and four of three—as follows 


DISSYLLABLE. 


TRISYLLABLE. 


A Trochee, — 

An Iambus, — 

A Spondee,- 

A Pyrrhic w w 


A Dactyl, — w w 
An Amphibrach, 

An Anapaest, w ^ — 
A Tribrach, w 


A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented: as 
“ HatefiSl, pettish.” 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented; as 
“ Betray, cbnsist.” 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented} as, “The pah' 

moon.” 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, “ 6n the tal 
tree.” 


A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented ; as 
“ Lftbprer, possible.” 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle 
one accented } as, “ Delightful, domestic.” 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented : 
as, “ Contravene, acquiesce.” 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, “ NumOrSble, conquerable.” 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of poetry may 
be wholly or. chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee. 
Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed^ secondary feet, because 
their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 


PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen¬ 
tences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking* the different 
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciatioif require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon , a pause double 
that of the comma} the Colon, double tnat of the semicolon; and the Paiod 
double that of the colon. 


OF THE COMMA 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very 
closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between Them. 

Rule I.—Willi respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it 
is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points 
are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it • as, “ The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom.”- “ Every part of nature swarms with living creatures.” 
. simple-sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case 
is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately 
before the verb ; as, “ The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us 
to neglect the cultivation of the English language.” “To be totally indif- 
fereut to praise or censure, is a real defect in character.” 


What constitutes a poetical foot, and wbv is it so 
called ? Of how many syllables do poeticai’feet con¬ 
sist ? How many kinds of feet are there, and what 
are they ? What is a Trochee ? an Iambus ? a Spon- 
oce? a Pyrrhic ? a Dactyl ? an Amphibrach ? an 
Anapaest? a Tribrach? Will you give an example 
of each ? Which are called principal ftet it Which 
ftcondary ? Why ? 


What is punctuation? Whit does (he comma 
represent ? the semicolon ? the colon ? the period ? 

How is the comma used ? 

“ The fear of the Lord isthe beginning of wisdom." 
Does this sentence require a pause in it? Will you 
give the rule for sentences of this kind ? “ The good 
taste of the present age has not allowed us to ueg'cct 
the cultivation of the English language.” Does thi* 









PROSODY. 


189 


Rule 2.— When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence, 
is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before 
the beginning and at the end of the phrase; as, “ I remember, with gratitude, 
his goodness to me.” u His work is, in many respects, very imperfect ” u It 
\s, therefore, not much approved.” Rut when the interruptions are slight and 
unimportant, the comma is better omitted; as, “ Flattery is certainly per¬ 
nicious.” u There is surety a pleasure in.beneficence.” 

Rule 3.—When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
are parted by a comma; as, “ The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex¬ 
tremely/ 7 “ They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade.” 

From this rule tiiere is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely 
connected by a conjunction; as, “ Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to 
| each other/ 7 u Libertines call religion bigotry dr superstition.” If the parts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is 
expressed} as, “ Romances*may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or danger¬ 
ous incentives to evil/ 7 

Rule 4.—Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, are 
likewise separated by commas; as, u Plain, honest truth wants no artificial 
covering/ 7 u David was a brave, wise, and.pious man/ 7 

But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa¬ 
rated bv a comma; as, u Truth is fair and artless/ 7 “ We must be wise or 
foolish : there is no medium/ 7 

Rule 5.—Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im¬ 
mediately following one another, are also separated by commas ; as, u Virtue 
supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity/ 7 “ In a letter we may advise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss/ 7 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the 
rule ; as, u The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind.” 

Two or moie participles are subject to a similar rule and exception. 

Rule (> —Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must 
be separated by commas ; as, “ We are fearfully, wonderfully framed/ 7 u We 
must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously.” 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by a 
comma; as, u Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously.” 

Rule 7.— When participles are followed by something that depends upon 
them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence bv commas ; 
as, “ rr he" king, approving the plan, put it in execution.” “ His talents, formed 
for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous/ 7 

Rule 8.—When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence- from the 
verb to which it. belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each 
extremity ; as, “ They set out early, ana, before the dawn of clay, arrived at 
the destined place/ 7 

Rule 9.—Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas ; as, u My son . give me thy heart.” “ 1 am obliged 
to you, my friends , for your many favors/’ 

Rule 10._The case absolute, <md the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa¬ 

rated bv commas from the body of the sentence; as, u His father dying, he 
succeeded to the estate.” “ At length, their ministry performed' and race well 
run, they left the world in peace/ 7 “ To confess 'the truth, I was much m 
fault/ 7 

Rule II._Nouns in apposition, that is. nouns added to other nouns m the 

same case, byway of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad¬ 
juncts, are'set off'by commas; as, “ Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 


ientence adroit of a pause ? Tf so, where, and what's 
the rule ? “ t remember with gratitude his goodness 

to me.” Will you state how this sentence should be 
pointed, anrl 'he rule for it ? Will you state the ex¬ 
ception to this nile ? , _ . , ,, 

U piainjionest truth wants no artificial covering . 7 
Will you'stale how *his sentence should be pointed, 
an d the rule for it r What exception is there to this 
rule? u Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in 
prosperity ” Will you state how this sentence should 
be pointed, and the rule for it ? State the exceptions 

to this rule. ,, . „ - Tr .., 

41 We are fearfully, wonderfully made.” Will you 


state what points should be placed in this sentence, 
and the rule for it ? State the exceptions. 

“ The king approving the plan, put it in execution.” 
Will you s'are how this sentence should be pointed, and 
the rule for it ? 

i% They set out early and before the dawn of day ar¬ 
rived .at the destined place.” Will you sta r e tne rule 
for pointing this sentence, and others of a similar 
kind ? 

“ My son give me thy heart.” What is the rule 
for pointing this sentence ? 

“ Paul the apostle of the Gentiles was eminent 
for his zeal and knowledge.” Will you stat-e how 







190 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


eminent for his zeal and knowledge.” “ The butterfly, child of the summer 
flutters in the sun.” 

H’4t if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not di¬ 
vided ; as, “ l'aul the apostle.” “ The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellen j 
book.” .J 

Rule 12. —Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, are 
for the most part distinguished by a comma; as, u As the hart panteth afte J 
the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee.” “ Better is a dinner o 
herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it.” 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gene¬ 
ral, better omitted ; as, “ How much better is it to get wisdom than gold!” 

Rule 13.—When words are placed in opposition to each other, or will 
some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma ; as, 

“ Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 

Strong, without rage ; without o’erflowing, full.” 

Good men, in tills frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in union 
with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another.” 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, 
it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, “ Many stales were in alliance 
with, and under the protection c/Romc.” 

u The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns 
refer to the same preposition ; as, “ I le was composed both under the threat¬ 
ening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death.” 

Rule 14.—A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat ii 
the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, “ It 
hurts a man’s'pride to say, I do not know.” “ Plutarch calls lying, the vice 
of slaves.” 


Rule 15. —Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit 
a comma before them; as, “He preaches sublimely, who dives a sober, 
righteous, and pious life.” 

But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re¬ 
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma 
should be omitted; as, “Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make.” 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex¬ 
pressed, but understood; as, “ It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that 
liis morals derived strei igth.” 

Rule 16.—A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, or 
following another, must be distinguished by a comma ; as, “ To improve time 
whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness.” “ Very 
often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of human life, wo 
make that vanity, and we increase those evils.” 

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely connected 
the comma is unnecessary ; as, “ Revelation tells us how we may attain hap¬ 
piness.” v 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with several 
words between them, those words should generally have a comma at the-end 
of them ; as, “ It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one 
another.” 

Several verbs in tiie infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and 
su< ceeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as, “ To relieve the indi¬ 
gent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving 
are humane and noble employments.” ' b ’ 

Rui.e 17.—When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former 


this sentence should be pointed, and the m!e for it ? 
“ As the hart panteth after the wa'er-brooks so doth 
my soul pant after thee.” How should this sentence 
be pointed, and what is the rule for if? 

'‘Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not dull.” 
How should this sentence be pointed, and what is the 
rule for it? State the exception to this rule. “It 
hurts a man’s pride to say I do not know.” Hew 
should Uiis sentence be pointed, and what is the rule 
for it? “He preaches sublimely who lives a sober 


righteous and pious life.” Will vou state how thn 
sentence should be pointed, and the’ rule for it ? Will 
you state when the comma should be omitted ? Doe; 
this rule apply to cases in which the relative is ex¬ 
pressed ? Give ah example. 

“To improve time whilst we are blessed vvitt 
health will smooth the bed of sickness.” How should 
this sentence be pointed, and what is the rule for it 
Will you state the exceptions to this rule t 












PROSODY. 


f 191 

;* generally separated from the latter verb by a comma; as, “The most ob 
/ious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men.” “ The 
first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men.” 

|l Rule 18.—Whelf adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and oficn 
vlien the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set oft" by commas - 
ts,“ Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
laiiy and repeated exertions.” u Vices, like shadows, towards the evening 
I if life, grow great and monstrous.” 

Rule 19.—Where the verb is understood, a comma may often be properly 
ntroduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the 
preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of them ; 
ks, “ From law arises security ^rom security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowl¬ 
edge.” 

i Rule 20.—The words no.ij, so, hence, again, fiftt, secondly, formerly, now, 
astly, once more , above all, on the contrary, in the next pface, in s lort, and all 
ither words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from 
he context by a comma. _ . ‘ , 


OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more 
>arts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor 
'et so little dependent on each other as those which are d io *inguished by a 
•olon. * 

7’he semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the situ* 
enee does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following 
‘lause; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete 
viihout '*'e concluding one ; as in the following instance: “ As the desire of 
ippwbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of 
Kir species in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to 
hem when it is governed by vanity and folly.” 


OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connect- 
id than those which are separated by a semicolon j but not so independent as 
eparate, distinct sentences. 

The colon *nay be properly applied in the three following cases :— 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in ; tself, but followed by some 
fapplementaLremark, or further illustration of the subject-, as, •*' Nature felt 
ler inability to extricate herself from tl# consequences of guilt: the gospel 
eveals the plan of divine interposition and aid.” 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is 
teoessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as, “ A 
livine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty governor, 
(retellingTorth his arm to punish or reward; informing us ot perpetual res* 
»reparcd hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaking 
he wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, which 
upport integrity, and check guilt.” 

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a spree i 
s introduced ; as, “ The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Jeity, in these words : ‘ God is love.' ” 


OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in con¬ 
traction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period. 


“Tbc mo** obvious remedy is>o withdraw from ail 
isecialions wirh bad men. 1 * Will you state how this 
mtpnre should he pointed, and the rule for it f 
Vices like shadows towards the evenin' of life grow 
reat ar.d monstrous.” Will you give the rule for 
anting this sentence, and apply ft ? “ From law 
-ises security from security curiosity from curiosity 
aowledge.” How should thi* sentence be pointed, 


ar.d what is the rule for it ? “ He feared want iumca 
he overvalued riches.” Will you state how this sen¬ 
tence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? . 

# sn is the semicolon used ? When is the co¬ 
ed ? Li what three cases may the colon be 
properly applied ? 

When is the period used? After abbreviated wontt 
what point should be used ? Give examples 








192 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The period should he used after every abbreviated word ; as, 
N. B., A. D., O.S., N. S.,&c. _ 


’ • 1 


M. S., P. 8., 


THE DASH. • 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers', 
•nay be introduced with propriety where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; 
where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in 
the sentiment; as, “ If thou art he, so much respected once—but, oh! how 
fallen! how degraded!’ ; , _ 


INTERROGATION. 

A Note of Interrogation is used at the encFftf" an interrogative sentence ; 
that is. when a question is a^ed; as. “ Who wfff accompany me V f u Shall 
we always be friends 1” _ 

EXCLAMATION. 

# 9 , 

The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, sur¬ 
prise, joy, grief, die., and also to invocations or addresses; as, “ My friend ! 
this conduct amazes me !” “ Bless the Lord, O my soul! and forget not all 

Ins benefits!” 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their 
quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respgtjt-, to a semicolon, 
a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They^iark an elevation of 
thewoice. 


i . PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or utjpfu* 
remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be 
omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as, 

“ Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

Virtue, alone, is happiness below.” 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be ac¬ 
companied with every point which the sense would require if the parenthetical 
characters were omitted. 


Directions respecting the Use of CAPITAL BETTERS. 

* • 

It is proper to begin with a capital# 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letteFfirttte', or any other piece of 
writing. 

2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally inde¬ 
pendent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, Almighty, the 
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships ; us, 
George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse. 

5 Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, Grecian 
Roman, English, French, Italian. &c. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a 
direct form ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : 'Know thyself.’” 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital^ 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; as, Johnson’s 
Dictionary of the English Language ; Thomson's Seasons. 

d. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun / and the interjection O are written in capitals. 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are remarkabl y emphatical, or the princi pal subject of the composition. 

When may Ihe dash be introduced with tioi points determinate as to 'heir quantity or time? 

“ W’-ho will accompany me ?” What point should be What is a parenthesis ? Give an example in which 
used at the end of this sentence? it is used with propriety. Should the voice be elevat- 

To what is the note of exclamation applied ? * Give ed >r depressed in pronouncing a parenthesis ? 
an example. Are the exclamation and uiteiToga Wheu should capital tetters he used? 









































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